Education + view (cont debates) - inequality types Flashcards
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Educational inequalities - general
- general (7)
- book examples (6)
- example studies (5)
- socs (5)
- stats (3)
Summarised: children advantaged/disadvantaged due to socialisation and cultural, gender and income factors. The degree to which this influences their attainment and experience is highly debated. A lack of real wide-reaching, diversely-sampled, relevant studies worsen certainty of how to improve the issues. Ways to improve are also varying - sink (new right, conservative) or swim (feminist, marxist, labour, postmodern), effectively.
General:
1. differing social classes bring with them different forms of socialisation, culture and advantages/disadvantages.
2. some argue these are very real, influence education a lot more than we think, and issues arising from them need to be addressed and improved.
3. others argue that this either is the case, but is just how it is/doesn’t need to be prioritised. or they disagree and think it’s not as serious as people think, and can be put to the wayside as subjective biassed opinion.
4. *gov no longer publishes official stats on social class and attainment.
5. *things such as FSMs, universal credit and income support exist.
6. *note: ‘material deprivation’ theories.
7. *’cultural factors’.
Book examples:
1. Feinstein (2003): two longitudinal studies, found poorer’s material factors influenced their academic experiences.
2. Gaine and George (1999): parents with lower literacy levels heighten the likelihood of lower academic outcomes for their children.
3. Callender and Jackson (2005): survey 2,000 students, debt aversion being biggest risk for uni application.
4. Bourdieu (1984): ‘cultural capital’ comprising ‘intangible nuances of manners and style’ greatly influences the advantages/disadvantages for students. Argued education was really just to socially reproduce and condition, over teach.
5. Bernstein (1972): restricted vs elaborated code, in which working class parents communicate in restricted code, and disadvantage their children academically (hugely influential, but controversial).
6. Sutton Trust: 27% uni admissions differences due to social class, not academic ability.
Example studies:
1. (Savage et al., 2013) identified seven social classes in the UK and found that higher social class is associated with better access to education.
2. (Flanders and Simms, 2016) revealed that children from higher social classes tend to have better academic performance due to factors like parental education, income, and cultural capital.
3. (Reay et al., 2017) emphasized the ongoing inequalities in educational opportunities and outcomes based on social class in the UK.
4. (Ball et al., 2018) explored how social class influences students’ educational decisions and aspirations, highlighting the additional barriers faced by working-class students compared to their middle-class peers.
5. (Archer et al., 2020) examined how social class shapes young people’s transitions from school to college or university, underscoring the significance of social class-based disparities in aspirations and support networks.
Socs:
1. NR: Gove (UK secretary of state for education)
2. F: Reay
3. M: Bourdieu
4. Sd: Ball
5. L: Bernstein
Stats:
1. University Access: Students from advantaged areas are over twice as likely to enter higher education than those from disadvantaged areas (Office for Students).
2. Private Education: Approximately 7% of UK children attend private schools, rising to about 18% for high-income households (ONS).
3. Graduation Rates: In 2019/2020, 82.4% of students from advantaged areas graduated with top degrees, compared to 69.5% of students from disadvantaged areas (HESA).
Edu inqualities - school and teacher influence
- general (8)
- book examples (5)
- example studies (3)
- socs (18)
- stats (6)
General:
1. teachers and educational environments greatly influence students and their attainment.
2. Hidden curriculums, social conditioning and socialisation, all influenced by preexisting issues of marginalisation, discrimination and inequality impact pupils and their academic attainment.
3. labelling processes, stereotyping students and the teacher-student relationship greatly influences academic attainment.
4. interactionist** sociologists (an **interpretivist** approach), uses **‘labelling theory’**, focused on the ‘**self-concept’ developed in schools**
5. **’ability grouping’: 40s-50s, placing all students on the same level irrespective of ability. **60s-70s advocated for ‘mixed ability teaching’ (matching those with similar ability levels in similar groups).
6. ‘Setting**’ used to place students matching ability, but varying depending on each subject.
7. Reemergence of ability grouping support; argued it enables best development for all. Mixed ability teachers argue limits those from lower sets to rise as their ability improves. Stereotyping influences this, and once students limited creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.
8. ’shop floor working class’
Book examples:
1. Hargreaves et al (1975): interviews and observation of teachers and students in two secondary schools, found students stereotyped/labelled; influenced how they were treated (4: speculation, hypothesis, elaboration, stabilisation).
2. Hargreaves (1967): found subcultures (conformist vs delinquent); lower stream boys often ‘delinquents’ due to status frustration, thus creating an anti-school subculture to gain status (links to pro-school and anti-school subculture concepts).
3. Dunne and Gazeley (2009): used quant/qual data of 22 teachers and 9 schools, confirmed interactionist view as of 88 ‘underachiever’ pupils, 70% working-class
4. Mac and Ghaill (1944): studied male year 11s in the Midlands, found (4): ‘academic achievers’, ‘macho lads’, ‘new enterprisers’, ‘real englishmen’.
5. Woods (1979): some students vacillate between conformity and rebellion to better survive school (e.g. ‘ritualists’ who behave well but aren’t interested in academic development).
Example studies:
1. Bernstein (1954) language codes and cultural factors impact academic achievement, disadvantaging working-class students.
2. Ball (1982) revealed that market forces contribute to educational inequalities, as disadvantaged schools with fewer resources exacerbate social class disparities in academic attainment.
3. Anyon (1980) hidden curriculum varies across social classes, with working-class schools emphasizing obedience and affluent schools fostering critical thinking, perpetuating unequal opportunities.
Socs:
- Coleman (1988), Bourdieu (1964), Lareau (2003), Ogbu (1971), Carter (2012), Bryk (1999), Bernstein (1989), Freire (1968), Dweck (1968), Becker (1972), Gintis (1971)
- F (Collins, Smith), M (Bourdieu, B and G), Fu (Durkheim, Parsons), Int (Becker, Goffman), Poststructuralist (Foucault), NR (Murray)
Stats:
Academic Attainment:
1. In 2020, 77.1% of students in state-funded schools in England achieved grade 4 or above in English and mathematics at GCSE level. (Department for Education)
School Subcultures:
2. Schools in England with higher proportions of disadvantaged students tend to have higher levels of disruptive behaviour and lower levels of student engagement. (Education Policy Institute)
Relationships Between Students and Teachers:
3. In 2020, 63% of teachers in England reported that their workload had a negative impact on the quality of their teaching. (Department for Education)
4. A 2017 survey found that 67% of teachers believed that their relationship with students had a positive impact on their job satisfaction. (National Education Union)
Social Class Influence:
5. In 2020, only 2.9% of students starting at Oxford University and 4.2% starting at Cambridge University were from the most disadvantaged areas. (Sutton Trust)
6. The impact of socioeconomic status on educational outcomes is significant, with an attainment gap of around 9 months by age 11. (Education Endowment Foundation’s Teaching and Learning Toolkit)
Edu inqualities - ethnic inequalities
- general (5)
- book examples (9)
- example studies (5)
- socs (10)
- stats (6)
General:
1. a prime issue. Lack of studies, data, interest and representation of ethnic issues and experiences in sociology. Often ethnic subgroups simplified to ‘asian’/’black’, but have become more specified as society and sociology have developed.
2. social class and economic factors have a greater influence on white pupils than ethnic pupils.
3. argued that in recent years, white pupils are some of the most underachieving students.
4. argued that more than home background, institutionalised racism pervades the UK education system; unconscious and intended bias (e.g. the ethnocentric curriculum) influences all school elements.
5. argued that a more multicultural curriculum should be put in place; this has developed in recent years, but need to be developed further.
- *DfE (Department for Education).
- ’educational triage*’; teachers forced to focus on those who are certain to succeed, therefore neglecting lower achieving students - these students respond negatively to this, thus creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Book examples:
1. Females achieve higher than males in every ethnic group at all educational levels - e.g. 82% girls, but 72% boys had 5+ GCSE grades A*-C compared to 95% girls/90% Chinese students (2011, NEU).
2. Schonberg (2008): used Millenium Cohort longitudinal study, found ethnic students begin underachieving, eventually overtake white counterparts (e.g. Bangladeshi and Chinese students gains exceed 20% - only ethnic group to not do this are black caribbean pupils).
3. Cassen (2007): nearly half of all low-achievers were white British males; also that low achievement was associated with FSM eligibility (this leading some to argue social class surpasses ethnic struggle as being the biggest issue).
4. Sellgren (2010): 1 in 10 students accepted by Oxbridge are ethnic; British Indians largest minority ethnic group in UK unis in 2007-2008.
5. Platt (2007): ethnic minority students have higher levels of poverty and unemployment - specifically Pakistani, Bangladeshi, black African groups.
6. Sewell (1997) controversial: studied black caribbean comp school boys 11-16; found patterns of lone-parent families, ‘macho’ ‘gang’ culture. Subcultures (4: conformists, 41%, innovators, 35%, retreatists, 6%, rebels, 18%) influence pupils, and how they interact with school (and how teachers stereotype them).
7. Vincent et al (2013): studied black middle class parents, found teachers made many assumptions of black parents over white parents. Argues ethnicity must be equally as factored into the equation as social class.
8. leading black educationalists Alexis and Davidson (2012): ‘it is the education system that is underperforming’
9. Gillborn (1990): ‘city road’ comp school, found evidence of racial bias and academic discrimination. Also a ‘crab-bucket’ mentality for black students who wished to perform better; such facing isolation, ostracism and distance from other black boys due to their aims.
Example studies:
1. Reay (2005) concluded that the educational attainment of ethnic minority students is influenced by the intersection of ethnicity and social class, highlighting the need to address structural inequalities.
2. Gilborn (2008) concluded that Black boys face challenges within the education system but develop strategies to navigate and resist negative stereotypes and discrimination.
3. Phoenix and Tizard (2011) concluded that the social context of schools plays a crucial role in shaping the educational experiences and identities of young people, including those from ethnic minority backgrounds.
4. Bhopal (2016) concluded that Traveller children encounter everyday racism in schools, which has detrimental effects on their educational experiences and outcomes.
5. Burgess et al. (2017) concluded that teacher-student racial match can have a positive impact on student achievement, underscoring the importance of teacher representation and diversity.
Socs:
1. Mirza (2000), Sewell (2002), Vincent (2005), Archer et al (2007), Strand (2013), Youdell (2009), Rollock (2013), Fuller (2015), Macleod (2017), Tikly et al (2020).
Stats:
Ethnic Academic Attainment:
1. In England, there is a significant attainment gap between White British students and Black Caribbean and Black African students. Only 58% of Black Caribbean students achieved the expected standard in primary school reading, writing, and mathematics (Department for Education, 2020).
2. In the 2020 GCSE results, the attainment gap persisted. 67.4% of White British students achieved grade 4 or above in English and mathematics GCSEs, compared to 49.8% of Black Caribbean students and 53.1% of Black African students (Joint Council for Qualifications, 2020).
Ethnic School Subcultures:
3. Research suggests the presence of distinct school subcultures among ethnic groups. Black Caribbean and White working-class students are more likely to adopt subcultures characterised by anti-school attitudes and disengagement (University of Manchester, 2019).
4. Pakistani and Bangladeshi students face challenges due to peer pressure against education and navigating cultural expectations at home and school (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2018).
Relationships between Ethnic Students and Teachers:
5. Runnymede Trust (2019) survey: 67% of Black students and 70% of Asian students in the UK reported experiencing **racial discrimination at school, including negative interactions with teachers.
6. Non-White teachers are underrepresented in schools. As of 2020, only 9% of teachers in England identified as non-White, while around 32% of pupils were from ethnic minority backgrounds (Department for Education, 2020**).
Edu inqualities - gender gap
- general (8)
- book examples (7)
- example studies (4)
- socs (9)
- stats (9)
General:
1. until 1990s, research focused on girls’ ‘underachievement’
2. generally little research or real studies done on women’s academic experiences
3. 1990s onwards, female academic attainment gap widened with girls eventually outperforming boys (in all subjects by 2013-2014)
4. changing societal standards (and growing phases of feminism), socialisation and growing opportunity via policies and changes facilitated (and encouraged) women’s developments in education
5. job market changes influenced too; 1971, 53% women in employment, this rose to 67% (2014) as male employment also fell. Different industries and work sectors accept women’s contribution too, further impacting working women (+policies: Equal Pay Act (1970), Sex Discrimination Act (1974)).
6. some argue that changes in UK education system influenced girls’ attainment too: e.g. coursework shift (GCSEs introduced 1998), ‘feminisation’ of education (more women than men in teaching positions), organisations to encourage girls’ outcomes (‘GIST’, ‘WISE’, Equal Opportunities Policies), feminist developments - efforts to eliminate sexism, research more girls)
7. boys’ general lack of improvement and being outperformed by girls has led to concern; media specifically - e.g. Gordon Brown (2006) ‘a wasted generation of boys’. But countered by the hypocrisy of no concern over girls’ welfare in decades prior.
8. *’crisis of masculinity’
Book examples:
1. 2012-2014: females outperform boys in all subjects (beginning since 1995)
2. DfE 2014: males attained more top grades at A-level; 13% males got 3A * s or A grades, compared to 12% females
3. Francis (2005): boys detracted attention from girls by their ‘laddish’ and ‘class clown’ behaviour; i.e. a lack of attention due to boys’ behaviour can be attributed to girls’ academic turnout
4. Sharpe (1976): studied working class London girls, priorities were: ‘love, marriage, husbands and children’. By 1994, shifted to employment and career prospects, in aims of financial dependence.
5. Beck (1992): ‘Risk Society’ theory, women more aware of their autonomy, feel less inclined to marry or be restricted by men in todays era of ‘second modernity’. Women ‘setting the pace for change’.
6. Jackson: studied yr 9 pupils, found ‘ladette’ culture of being too afraid of cultivated pressure and failure, instead opting for rejecting the ‘good girl’ model. Argued this partly due to emergence of ‘masculine’ kinds of women in media, ‘adopting masculine behaviours such as heavy drinking and hyper aggression’.
7. Mac and Ghaill (1994): decline of male-dominated (and rise in feminised jobs) jobs has led to a crisis of masculinity, which began in the 1960s.
Example studies:
1. Walkerdine (1984) gendered expectations influenced girls’ educational outcomes and aspirations, impacting their experiences in schools.
2. Paechter & Clark (2007) emphasized the need for inclusive educational practices to address gender inequality, exploring the intersections of gender, education, and feminist pedagogy.
3. Ringrose, Renold, & Weir (2012) focused on girls’ negotiation and resistance of dominant gender norms in UK schools, particularly in the areas of sexuality and relationships, highlighting their agency in challenging the heterosexual matrix.
4. Reay (2001) examined the construction of femininities and gendered identities among primary school girls, considering the influence of peer cultures and classroom practices.
Socs:
1. Oakley (1944), Reay (1954), Skelton (1956), Francis (1959), David (1958), Mirza (1958), Taylor (1962), Archer (1965), Youdell (1964)
Stats:
GCSE Grades:
1. English language: Girls - 76.9% achieved grades 9-4, Boys - 66.6% achieved grades 9-4.
2. Mathematics: Girls - 72.3% achieved grades 9-4, Boys - 60.9% achieved grades 9-4.
University Degree Attainment:
3. Women: 29.5% achieved first-class degrees.
4. Men: 25.4% achieved first-class degrees.
A-level Subject Choices:
5. Mathematics: 39% male students, 27% female students.
6. English subjects: 72% female students, 28% male students.
STEM Employment:
7. Women: 24.9% of workforce in SET occupations.
University Applications:
8. Women: 57.5% of all applicants to UK universities.
Gender Pay Gap by Education:
9. Women with a bachelor’s degree or higher earn on average 26.9% less than men with the same education level.
Edu inqualities - global context
- general (3)
- book examples (7)
- example studies (5)
- socs (15)
- stats (5)
General:
1. disadvantage, discrimination, marginalisation and ‘gender apartheid’ exists globally, specifically in third world countries via physical, legal and socialisation practises which relegate individuals into subordinate positions.
2. has been argued somewhat that claiming gender apartheid on other countries and cultures in mostly a westernised socialised perspective, and reduces and invalidates the preexisting cultures in other nations.
3. also argued that **efforts to explore this prioritise gender over other issues, and literacy studies (etc) don’t fully illustrate the situation. **
Book examples:
1. Russo (2006): US-led campaign to facilitate educational opportunities for Afghan women in 2001 ‘simply an excuse to justify American empire building’
2. VSO (2011): an extra year of primary school boosts girls’ eventual wages by 10-20%
3. UNESCO (2012): elements restrict girls’ opportunities: family constraints, societal constraints, educational system and political policies, few benefits post-education for some nations.
4. GPI data: in Mongolia, more girls than boys stay in education, as boys leave at earlier ages to start work.
5. UNICEF (2012): of 4.2 million Afghan children with no education, 60% are girls.
6. Bjornberg (2003): 97% of children aged 1-5 attend public schools; college is free, monthly allowance provided.
7. Steer et al (2014): 6% aged 7-16 had never been to school; 2004, 38% poor Sylhet children uneducated, improved to 17% in 2012.
Example studies:
1. Freire (1968): Explored oppression and lack of educational opportunities in developing countries, emphasizing critical pedagogy and empowering marginalized communities through education.
2. Jencks (1972): Examined the relationship between family background, schooling, and educational inequality in the US, highlighting the impact of social factors on educational outcomes and inequality.
3. Bowles and Gintis (1976): Analyzed how educational institutions in capitalist societies reproduce social inequalities and maintain the existing social order.
4. Spring (2008): Explored globalization’s impact on education, including policies, cultural influences, and the spread of Western education models.
5. UNICEF (2019): Highlighted the global learning crisis, addressing barriers to quality education in low-income countries and proposing strategies for improvement.
Socs:
1. Bourdieu (1930-2002), Freire (1921-1997), Connell (1944), Lareau (1952), Sen (1933), Walby (1953), Spring (1946), Bernstein (1924-2000), Boudon (1934-2013), Apple (1942), Smith (1926), Goffman (1922-1982), Becker (1928), Beck (1944-2015), Urry (1946-2016), Dreeben (1922-2015).
Stats:
1. Out-of-school children: In 2019, around 258 million children (18% of the global population in that age group) were out of school (UNESCO).
2. Primary school completion rate: The global average primary school completion rate in 2019 was 82%, but significant disparities exist between regions and countries.
3. Literacy rates: The global adult literacy rate was approximately 86% in 2017, but there are variations across countries, with lower-income countries generally having lower rates (World Bank).
4. Gender disparities in education: Girls in some countries still face barriers to education. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2019, the gender parity index for primary education was 0.94 (UNESCO).
5. Education expenditure: In 2018, the global average government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was approximately 4.9%, but there are variations between countries (World Bank).
