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Human Physiology > Endocrinology > Flashcards

Endocrinology Flashcards

1
Q

What is a hormone?

A

Chemical messengers that coordinate different bodily functions, secreted by glands and act on target organs

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2
Q

List all of the major endocrine glands.

A
  1. Pineal gland
  2. Thymus
  3. Ovary (F) or testicle (M)
  4. Placenta (F in pregnancy)
  5. Adrenal glands
  6. Pancreas
  7. Thyroid and parathyroid glands
  8. Pituitary gland
  9. Hypothalamus
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3
Q

What are the five effects hormones can have?

A
  1. Changes in PM permeability/electrical state
  2. Synthesis of proteins/regulatory molecules
  3. Enzyme activation/inactivation
  4. Mitosis
  5. Promote secretory activation
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4
Q

The ductless glands of the endocrine system are scattered throughout the body. What is the one thing that connects them?

A

The blood system

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5
Q

The Pineal gland is located in the mid-line of the brain. What hormone does it secrete and what is its function?

A
  1. Secretes melatonin
  2. Helps to control the circadian rhythm
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6
Q

The hypothalamus is located deep within the brain. What is its main function?

A

It is the main control centre for the whole endocrine system

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7
Q

The pituitary gland secretes hormones that control other glands. Where is it located?

A

Below the hypothalamus

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8
Q

The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in the throat. They secrete hormones that controls what?

A

The rate of growth & development

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9
Q

The thymus is located in the upper chest, under the breastbone. What does it produce?

A

It produces lymphocytes, important for the immune system

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10
Q

Adrenal glands secrete a variety of hormones including adrenaline. Where are they located?

A

On top of both of the kidneys

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11
Q

The pancreas in inside the abdomen, behind the stomach. It plays a vital role in digestion and in the homeostasis of what?

A

Blood glucose levels

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12
Q

The reproductive glands (testes and ovaries) produce what hormones?

A

Sex hormones

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13
Q

What are the three types of hormones?

A
  1. Amino acid based
  2. Steroids
  3. Eicosanoids
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14
Q

Insulin and glucagon are examples of what types of amino acid-based hormones?

A

Peptide hormones

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15
Q

Epinephrine is an example of what type of amino acid-based hormone?

A

Amine hormones

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16
Q

Gonadal and adrenocortical hormones tend to be what type of hormones?

A

Steroid hormones

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17
Q

What type of hormone is cortisol?

A

A steroid

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18
Q

Leukotrienes and prostaglandins are what type of hormone?

A

Eicosanoids

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19
Q

What are the three signalling pathways a hormone can use?

A
  1. Endocrine signalling
  2. Paracrine signalling
  3. Autocrine signalling
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20
Q

Describe the mechanism of endocrine signalling.

A
  1. Hormone is released from the signalling cell and enters the bloodstream
  2. Hormone travels through the bloodstream to the target cell
  3. Hormone binds to receptor on target cell
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21
Q

Describe the mechanism of paracrine signalling.

A
  1. Hormones only act on target cells near/close to the signalling cell via receptors
  2. Bloodstream is not involved
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22
Q

Describe the mechanism of autocrine signalling.

A
  1. Hormone released from the signalling cell
  2. Hormone binds to receptors on itself and acts upon itself
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23
Q

What type of hormone signalling is seen with growth hormones?

A

Endocrine signalling

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24
Q

What type of hormone signalling is seen with oestrogen?

A

Paracrine signalling

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25
Q

T-lymphocytes can stimulate their own proliferation in the immune response - what type of hormone signalling is this?

A

Autocrine signalling

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26
Q

Hormones alter target cell activity by one of two mechanisms. What are they?

A
  1. Second messengers
  2. Direct gene activation
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27
Q

What are the three factors that target cell activation is dependent on?

A
  1. Amount of circulating concentration of the hormone
  2. Number of receptors present on target cell’s membrane
  3. Affinity for the hormone binding to the receptor
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28
Q

Describe the second messenger mechanism for amino acid-based hormones.

A
  1. The hormone (1st messenger) will bind to receptor on target cell
  2. Causes a conformational change which activates the inactive G-protein
  3. Activates a downward cascade of cyclic AMP (cAMP) (2nd messenger)
  4. cAMP activates a protein kinase which tiggers cell response
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29
Q

Describe the direct gene activation mechanism of steroid hormones.

A
  1. Hormone can pass through the cell membrane as it is lipid-based
  2. Hormone binds to receptor within cell (cytoplasm/nucleus)
  3. Locates to nucleus
  4. Hormone will bind to DNA and alters transcription rates for protein, causing a conformational change
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30
Q

What are the three mechanisms of hormone release?

A
  1. Humoral stimuli
  2. Hormonal stimuli
  3. Neural stimuli
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31
Q

Describe the humoral stimuli mechanism of hormone release.

A
  1. The control of hormone release is in response to changes in extracellular fluids (ion conc in blood), example:
  2. Capillary blood contains low conc of calcium
  3. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
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32
Q

Describe the hormonal stimuli mechanism of hormone release.

A
  1. One hormone stimulates the release of another hormone
  2. Hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland
  3. Anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones to stimulate other endocrine glands
  4. Other glands secrete hormones
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33
Q

Describe the neural stimuli mechanism of hormone release.

A
  1. The nervous system directly stimulates endocrine glands to release hormones
  2. Preganglionic sympathetic nervous system fibres stimulates adrenal medulla cells
  3. They secrete catecholamines
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34
Q

What are the three reasons why endocrine glands release hormones?

A
  1. Due to triggers/stimuli
  2. Homeostatic control
  3. Due to feedback systems
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35
Q

What is the function of anti-diuretic hormone?

A
  1. Acts to maintain blood pressure and blood volume
  2. Controls the amount of water and urine concentration excreted by the body
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36
Q

Where is ADH synthesised?

A

In the hypothalamus

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37
Q

Where is ADH secreted into the bloodstream from?

A

The posterior pituitary gland

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38
Q

What happens when ADH is secreted into the bloodstream?

A
  1. The collecting duct becomes highly permeably to water as it stimulates the aquaporins of the kidney to open
  2. More water reabsorbed into the blood
  3. Results in small volume of concentrated urine
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39
Q

What is the definition of blood osmolarity?

A

The estimation of the osmolar concentration of the blood plasma - how many particles per litre of solution there is (mmol/litre)

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40
Q

What are the two ways through which the body can control blood osmolarity?

A
  1. Regulation through the release of ADH
  2. Increasing thirst
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41
Q

Osmoregulators in the hypothalamus stimulate you to drink. How does this effect blood osmolarity?

A
  1. Increases volume of fluid in the blood
  2. Reduced blood osmolarity
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42
Q

Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age unless there is disease. How does old age effect endocrinology?

A
  1. Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of the ovaries
  2. Growth hormone production declines with age
  3. Endocrine glands decrease output with age
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43
Q

The posterior pituitary gland does not make any hormones but instead secretes those made by the hypothalamus, which are?

A
  1. Oxytocin
  2. ADH
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44
Q

What hormones is the anterior pituitary gland able to make and secrete?

A
  1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  2. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  3. Luteinising hormone (LH)
  4. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
  5. Growth hormone (GH)
  6. Prolactin (PRL)
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45
Q

What three main types of steroid hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands?

A
  1. Mineralcorticoids
  2. Glucocorticoids
  3. Androgens
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46
Q

The mineralocorticoids are aldosterone and corticosterone. What is their function?

A

Help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance

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47
Q

Cortisol and cortisone are examples of what type of steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands?

A

Glucocorticoids

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48
Q

What is the function of cortisol and cortisone?

A

Regulate metabolism and immune system suppression

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49
Q

What are the androgens and what is their function?

A
  1. Oestrogens and testosterone
  2. Immature sex hormones
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50
Q

Acromegaly is an endocrine genetic condition with symptoms such as enlarged hands and feet and a larger forehead. What is it caused by?

A

Too much growth hormone in adulthood

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51
Q

Acromegaly causes an increase in IFG-1. What can this lead to?

A
  1. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis
  2. Impairment of the negative feedback loop
  3. Increased growth hormone secretion
52
Q

Diabetes insipidus is characterised by too much ADH being produced. This causes disruptions in the water & electrolyte balance. What symptoms does this cause?

A
  1. Polydipsia - constant thirst
  2. Polyuria - frequent urination
53
Q

What is Cushing’s syndrome?

A
  1. High levels of cortisol
  2. Due to high cortisol production or long-term use of steroids
54
Q

Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis is an autoimmune disorder in which what happens?

A

Antibodies attack the thyroid

55
Q

What is hyperglycaemia?

A

High blood glucose levels

56
Q

What is hypoglycaemia?

A

Low blood glucose levels

57
Q

What are normal blood glucose levels?

A

3.5-6.5 mmol/L

58
Q

Why is glucose not able to cross the plasma membrane on its own by diffusion?

A

It is not lipid soluble

59
Q

How is glucose able to cross the plasma membrane into cells?

A

By the GLUT 4 transport protein

60
Q

Without insulin, very little glucose would be able to pass into cells. How does insulin initiate the movement of glucose across the plasma membrane?

A
  1. Insulin binds to transmembrane receptors
  2. Causes a signal transduction cascade which alerts a secretory vesicle containing GLUT-4 transport protein
  3. Vesicle moves to the membrane and undergoes exocytosis
  4. GLUT-4 transporter becomes part of the membrane
61
Q

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease. What does this mean?

A

A condition that lasts 1 year or more and requires ongoing medical attention/limits daily activities

62
Q

What type of diabetes is an autoimmune condition which causes an insulin deficiency?

A

Type one

63
Q

What type of diabetes is a combination of insulin resistance and insulin deficiency and is generally causes by lifestyle factors?

A

Type two

64
Q

What are the three universal symptoms across type 1 and type 2 diabetes?

A
  1. Polyuria
  2. Polydipsia
  3. Fatigue
65
Q

What type of diabetes is characterised by weight gain and linked to obesity & insulin resistance?

A

Type 2

66
Q

What are the two clinical and measurable signs of diabetes mellitus?

A
  1. Hyperglycaemia
  2. Diabetic ketoacidosis
67
Q

How is diabetic ketoacidosis caused?

A
  1. Constantly high blood glucose and a lack of insulin means body gets no glucose - instead breaks down proteins & fats
  2. Build-up of waste products (ketone bodies)
68
Q

How does diabetic ketoacidosis effect blood pH?

A

Lowers blood pH

69
Q

What are the four types of tests for a diabetes diagnosis?

A
  1. Fasting blood glucose (FBG)
  2. Random blood glucose (RBG)
  3. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)
  4. HbA1c
70
Q

HbA1c tests the quantity of haemoglobin that has been glycosylated over a long period of time - how long is the average life cycle of an RBC?

A

3 months

71
Q

What is the aetiology for type 1 diabetes?

A
  1. T cells of the immune system destroy beta cells of the pancreas
  2. Causes insulin deficiency
  3. Cause/triggers unknown
  4. Genetic and environmental factors
72
Q

What is the peak incidence for type 1 diabetes?

A

Childhood, 8-12 years most common

73
Q

What type of test can be used to differentiate between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?

A

Antibody tests

74
Q

How is type 1 diabetes treated?

A

Exogenous insulin (injections)

75
Q

What are the four types of insulin available?

A
  1. Rapid-acting
  2. Short-acting
  3. Intermediate-acting
  4. Long-acting
76
Q

What type of insulin is usually taken before meals as it acts quickly but not for long?

A
  1. Rapid-acting
  2. Short-acting
77
Q

What type of insulin is usually taken once a day to control background blood glucose?

A
  1. Intermediate-acting
  2. Long-acting
78
Q

What is the basal-bolus regime for insulin injections?

A
  1. One shot of intermediate/long-acting insulin a day AND
  2. Taking a shot of rapid/short-acting insulin after meals
79
Q

What is the aetiology for type 2 diabetes?

A
  1. 90% of type 2 diabetes cases are linked to obesity
  2. Other genetic and environmental factors
  3. Pancreatic beta cells produce some insulin but body does not respond well
80
Q

What cells produce glucagon?

A

Pancreatic alpha cells

81
Q

When is peak incidence for type 2 diabetes?

A

Adulthood, 30-40 years

82
Q

Patients with what syndrome are at an increased risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease?

A

Metabolic syndrome

83
Q

What are the treatments for type 2 diabetes?

A
  1. Diet and lifestyle changes
  2. Metformin
  3. Secondary/tertiary medications
  4. Insulin
84
Q

How does metformin effect glucose uptake and the liver?

A
  1. Makes cells more sensitive to glucose
  2. Reduces the amount of glucose the liver produces
85
Q

High blood glucose levels damages endothelial tissues. What microvascular complications does this have?

A
  1. Retinopathy
  2. Nephropathy
  3. Neuropathy
86
Q

High blood glucose levels damages endothelial tissues. What macrovascular complications does this have?

A
  1. Cardiovascular disease
  2. Cerebrovascular disease
87
Q

Pregnant women can develop gestational diabetes, and treatment includes metformin or insulin. What percentage of pregnancies will experience this?

A

5-10%

88
Q

What is congenital iodine deficiency caused by?

A

Insufficient dietary iodine during pregnancy

89
Q

What is hyperthyroidism?

A
  1. Overactive thyroid
  2. Thyroid produces increased thyroid hormones
  3. Low TSH
90
Q

What is hypothyroidism?

A
  1. Underactive thyroid
  2. Thyroid produces decreased thyroid hormones
  3. High TSH
91
Q

What is the functional unit of the thyroid?

A

The thyroid follicle

92
Q

What is the thyroid follicle lined with and what is their lumen called?

A
  1. Lined with parafollicular cells/thyrocytes
  2. Lumen is called a colloid
93
Q

The thyroid gland is larger in women, with a larger right lobe. It can alter in size during what life processes?

A
  1. Pregnancy
  2. Lactation
  3. Menstrual cycle
94
Q

What hormones are produced by the thyroid?

A
  1. Thyroxine (T4)
  2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
  3. Calcitonin
95
Q

What type of hormone is calcitonin and what does it do?

A
  1. A peptide hormone
  2. Regulated blood calcium levels
96
Q

The thyroid hormones are created from what two components?

A
  1. Iodine
  2. Tyrosine
97
Q

Between T3 and T4, which thyroid hormone is biologically active?

A

T3

98
Q

What metabolic functions do thyroid hormones have?

A
  1. Convert cholesterol into bile
  2. Increase basal metabolic rate
  3. Increase gut absorption, cell uptake & glucose breakdown
  4. Stimulate lipolysis
99
Q

What cardiovascular functions do thyroid hormones have?

A
  1. Increase rate & strength of heartbeat
  2. Increase breathing, O2 consumption, and mito activity
  3. Increase blood flow & body temp
100
Q

What developmental functions do thyroid hormones have?

A
  1. Increase growth rate
  2. Roles in brain maturation
  3. Maintain normal development
101
Q

What cognitive functions do thyroid hormones have?

A
  1. Sleep and thought patterns
  2. Increase speed of thought
  3. Decrease focus
102
Q

What sexual functions do thyroid hormones have?

A
  1. Maintain libido
  2. Maintain menstrual cycle
103
Q

Where in the thyroid does thyroperoxidase iodinate the tyrosyl residues of thyroglobulin?

A

In the colloid of the follicle

104
Q

Iodine travels in the blood as iodide and in the colloid, is oxidised to iodine. Why is this?

A

Iodine is more reactive than iodide

105
Q

Iodinated thyroglobulin is cleaved by lysosomal enzymes. What thyroid hormones does this form?

A
  1. 90% T4
  2. 10% T3
106
Q

What cells of the thyroid produce calcitonin in response to high blood calcium?

A

Parafollicular cells

107
Q

Calcitonin decreases the amount of calcium released from the bones. How does it do this?

A

By decreasing the activity of osteoblast cells that break down bone

108
Q

What disorder is being described by the following symptoms: Goitre, poor infant growth, thickened skin, protruding abdomen, and severe, irreversible mental retardation?

A

Congenital iodine deficiency

109
Q

This disorder is caused by a lack of dietary iodine in adulthood and can cause metabolic problems resulting in a goitre. What disorder is it?

A

Adult iodine deficiency

110
Q

Explain how the HPA axis controls thyroid hormone synthesis.

A
  1. Changes in environment cause the release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in the hypothalamus
  2. TRH stimulates the release of TSH from pituitary gland
  3. TSH acts on receptors in the thyroid follicle to stimulate synthesis of thyroid hormones
111
Q

Where is thyroglobulin synthesised before it is secreted into the colloid?

A

In the endoplasmic reticulum of the follicular cell

112
Q

Thyroid hormones are able to cross the plasma membrane by passive diffusion because of what property?

A

They are lipid soluble

113
Q

Thyroid hormones bind to intracellular nuclear thyroid hormone receptors. What are the four receptors?

A
  1. TR-alpha1
  2. TR-alpha2
  3. TR-beta1
  4. TR-beta2
114
Q

Once thyroglobulin has been iodinated, what must it bind to to be endocytosed back into the cell?

A

Megalin

115
Q

Thyroid hormones cross the follicular cell membrane towards the blood vessels via diffusion and the help of what transporter?

A

A monocarboxylate transporter (MCT)

116
Q

Based on the following signs and symptoms, what disease is being described: Heat intolerance, muscle weakness, fast HR, goitre, and weight loss?

A

Hyperthyroidism

117
Q

What are the treatments for hyperthyroidism?

A
  1. Radioiodine therapy
  2. Medications such as beta blockers and anti-thyroid meds
  3. Thyroid surgery
118
Q

Based on the following signs and symptoms, what disorder is described: Weight gain, cold intolerance, depression, goitre, slow HR, and tiredness?

A

Hypothyroidism

119
Q

What are the main causes of hypothyroidism?

A
  1. Too little dietary iodine
  2. Hashimoto’s
  3. Injury to hypothalamus or pituitary
120
Q

A goitre (lump in the neck) is seen in both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Why is this?

A
  1. Hyper - overstimulation of gland
  2. Hypo - no negative feedback by thyroxine to hypothalamus
121
Q

What are the four risk factors for thyroid cancer?

A
  1. Radiation exposure
  2. Enlarged thyroid
  3. Family history/genetics
  4. Obesity
122
Q

What are the four types of thyroid cancer?

A
  1. Papillary thyroid cancer
  2. Follicular thyroid cancer
  3. Medullary thyroid cancer
  4. Anaplastic thyroid cancer
123
Q

What are the four treatments for thyroid cancer?

A
  1. Surgery
  2. Chemotherapy
  3. Radiation therapy (iodine-131)
  4. Watchful waiting
124
Q

What would a blood test for a patient with hyperthyroidism show?

A
  1. Low TSH levels
  2. Raised T3 and T4 levels
125
Q

What would a blood test for a patient with hypothyroidism show?

A
  1. High TSH levels
  2. Low T3 and T4 levels
126
Q

Diagnosis for thyroid cancer revolves around ultrasounds and fine needle aspirations. Radiation therapy can only be used on what two types of thyroid cancer?

A
  1. Papillary thyroid cancer
  2. Follicular thyroid cancer

Human Physiology (6 decks)

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