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ENTM 1000 final Flashcards

1
Q

How many ants are there on earth? What is the total biomass?

A

-20 quadrillion
-12 megatons of dry carbon

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2
Q

Epigaeic forages

A

above ground foragers
-important because of the nutrients they provide to other organisms in the ecosystem

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3
Q

how do ants control aphids which they are farming (3)

A

-herding behavior (aphid eggs are arranged on metistem by ants)
-Wing removal of alate aphids
-secretion of chemicals slow aphid walking

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4
Q

Mutualism

A

An ecological interaction between species that benefits both interacting species
-ex: pollination, farming, microbes in blood-feeder guts

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5
Q

Farming mutualism

A

-humans use livestock to process low quality foods (grass, etc) into high quality food (meat, milk, etc)
-livestock benefits by having larger populations

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6
Q

why do ants farm aphids

A

aphids produce honeydew which is a nutrient source for the ants (since they feed on xylem/phloem, they must excrete a lot of waste/fluid to get enough nutrition)
-ants “milk” aphids by swallowing excrete droplets, and occasionally eat the aphids

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7
Q

how do ants defend their aphids?

A

-attacking with their mandibles
-spraying formic acid

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8
Q

How do ants travel to aphid herds

A

-by using trail pheromones

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9
Q

aphid mummy

A

aphid skin with parasitoid pupa inside
-ants must protect their aphids from parasitoids

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10
Q

Trophallaxis

A

mouth to mouth transfer (between ants)

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11
Q

how do honeypot ants store food?

A

-have a caste called “repletes” which are specialized to store food
-filled and emptied by trophallaxis
-found in deserts

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12
Q

Attini tribe

A

ants which culture and eat fungus
-distributed in Central and South America only (compared to termites, which farm fungus in Africa and Asia)
-have an obligate dependence on symbiotic fungi for food

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13
Q

what percentage of leaf damage and biomass consumption are attini tribe ants responsible for in rainforests?
Grasslands?

A

80% of leaf damage, 17% of biomass consumption
-consume the same amount of biomass of vegetation per hectare as cattle in grasslands

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14
Q

leaf cutting ant nests (6)

A
  1. ants harvest leaf pieces from trees
    -protection of medium-sized workers by minor workers
  2. trail of transport workers bringing leaf pieces back to the nest
  3. transporter workers give pieces to processing workers
  4. leaf pieces are converted to mulch substrate for fungal growth
  5. The queen sits on the fungus garden and lays her eggs
  6. Waste leaf material, dead ants, and dead fungus are transported to dump chambers, which concentrate nutrients
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15
Q

why do ants farm fungus?

A

fungus produces gongylidia, which is food for ants

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16
Q

how do leaf cutting ants affect humans and the environment? (3)

A

-can be pests of human agriculture (increase in abundance when a forest is cut; often forces farms in tropical regions to be abandoned)
-introduce large amounts of organic mater into tropical forest soils, which affects nutrient supply and cycling
-plants increase production of fine rot in ant refuse areas

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17
Q

Ant megalopolis

A

excavation done of an ants nest
-took three days, used 10 tons of cement
-8 m deep, 50 m^2

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18
Q

ant-fungus mutualism

A

-ants create ideal conditions for fungus to grow (temp, humidity, darkness, remove wax to allow for growth)
-fungus digest cellulose and provide easy to manipulate gongylidia structures (used for food)
-in the most evolved fungal farmers, the fungus cannot survive without the ant
-each ant grows a narrow range of fungal cultivars

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19
Q

colony establishment of leaf cutting ants

A

-before a mating fight, a queen collects a small amount of fungus in her mouth
-she carries the fungus until she establishes a new nest, then uses it to start a new fungus garden
-after mating, the queen stores 206-320 million sperm

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20
Q

where do leaf cutting ants prefer to establish colonies?

A

tree fall gaps
-more sunlight and nutrient-rich leaves

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21
Q

what is the colony survivorship of leaf cutting ants?

A

out of 13,300, only 12 survived three months
-other studies found 2.5-10%

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22
Q

what are the two types of leaf cutting ant eggs?

A
  1. small eggs - first brood of larvae
  2. large eggs - used as food for larvae
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23
Q

how do leaf cutter ants preform pest management?

A

-fungus garden can be invaded by other fungi or bacteria
-gardeners weed the garden and secrete compounds that promote fungal growth and suppress pests
-increase garden weeding rate at times of infection

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24
Q

Escovopsis

A

parasitic fungus which attacks the fungus gardens of leaf-cutter ants
-can be rapidly transmitted from one garden to another
-rapidly destroys the gardens, leading to death of the ant colony

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25
Q

fungicide-producing bacteria

A

-the ants carry a bacterium which make chemicals to inhibit Escovopsis
-the bacteria also secrete compounds that promote the growth of the cultivated fungi
-bacteria ALSO are benefitted by:
1. Getting a place to live (crypts)
2. Get a source of food from the ants (glandular secretions)
-therefore, the bacteria are a third mutualist

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26
Q

crypts

A

specialized structures on the ant’s exoskeleton; houses mutualistic bacteria
-the higher fungus feeders all cultivate bacteria fungicide producers

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27
Q

Myrmecochory

A

seed dispersal by ants

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28
Q

Elaiosomes

A

food bodies on seeds with chemical attractants for ants
-ants carry seeds to the nest

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29
Q

when did the first ancestral ant farmers emerge?

A

50 million years ago

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30
Q

how many farmer tribes have arose in the last 25 million years?

A

at least four

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31
Q

how many, and which, other animals practice agriculture?

A

three (humans, termites, bark beetles)

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32
Q

what order and family are lady beetles in?

A

order: Coleoptera
family: Coccinellidae (berry red/ scarlet in Greek and Latin)

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33
Q

how many tarsal segments do lady beetles have?

A

4 tarsal segments (3rd is hidden)

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34
Q

how many species of lady beetles are worldwide? North America?

A

6,000 species worldwide
-475 in North America

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35
Q

Aposematic coloration

A

“warning” coloration
-tells predators they are toxic
-able to sequester toxins

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36
Q

Haemolymph

A

“reflex bleeding”: breaking a membrane on the certain part of their body and pushing hemolymph out
-full of toxins, strong odor, distasteful to predators

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37
Q

Mullerian mimicry

A

two or more unpalatable species obtain protection from predation by resembling each other (shared protection)
-many species of insects mimic lady beetles, as they are protected and predators

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38
Q

Batesian mimicry

A

a palatable (edible) species obtains protection from predation by resembling an unpalatable (toxic) species

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39
Q

polymorphism

A

individuals of the same species differ in their patterns, morphology, etc

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40
Q

how can polymorphism benefit lady beetles?

A
  1. Batesian mimicry decreases the effectiveness of the colorations (since predators learn that many are non toxic insects)
    -adding more coloratios makes it harder for non-toxic species to copy
  2. Could help them blend into the environment in different habitats
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41
Q

Lifecycles of lady beetles (4)

A
  1. Egg stage: deposit eggs on leaves
  2. Larvae stage: (4 larvae stages total)
    -larvae are found on trees because they feed on aphids
    -will also eat other lady beetles (however will often not eat others from the same batch of eggs)
  3. Pupa stage
  4. Adult stage
    -complete metamorphosis (holometabolous)
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42
Q

Mexican bean beetle

A

species of lady beetle which ONLY feed on plants
-pest of crops
-all other species in North America are beneficial insects

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43
Q

what do lady beetles feed on?

A

-aphids, scale insects, eggs, etc
-many species are somewhat aphid specialists, although they will feed on other insects/eggs if food is scarce
-some are able to feed on pollen and nectar of flowers
-some feed on leaf hoppers
-eat their own moults
-larvae eat the leftover eggs after hatching (some lady beetle species lay non-viable eggs which serve as food for the larvae)

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44
Q

Squash beetle

A

type of lady beetle which feed on squash plants

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45
Q

where do lady beetles lay their eggs?

A

near an established aphid colony
-ensures survival of offspring

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46
Q

ladybeetle predators

A

-birds, spiders, bugs, etc
-ants (commonly attack lady beetles)

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47
Q

ant - lady beetle interactions

A

it was found that ants on plants prevent parasitoids and lady beetles from attacking aphids
-more ants = less lady beetles = more aphids = more pest pressure

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48
Q

zombie bodyguards (lady beetles)

A

-parasitoid wasp (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) attacks lady beetles
-larvae develops inside of the lady beetle, then crawls out of the anus (to avoid killing the beetle)
-crawls under the beetle to pupate
-the lady beetle’s behavior is modified to protect the developing pupa from predators

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49
Q

Classical biological control

A

introducing a predator or parasitoid of a pest species into an area to control pest numbers
-lady beetles often used, since they are very effective predators (especially of aphids)

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50
Q

Pest (anthropocentric point of view)

A

insects that are in conflict with our welfare, aesthetics, or profits
-direct and indirect effects

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51
Q

direct effects of pests

A

-vectors of human diseases (mosquitos, ticks, fleas, etc)
-allergic reactions (ex lady beetles)

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52
Q

indirect effects of pests

A

-affect domestic animals (ex cattle flies)
-affect crops (ex armyworms, aphids, leafhoppers, etc)
-affect timber species (ex bark beetles)

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53
Q

Economic injury level (EIL)

A

“the minimum number of pests that reduce yield equal to the gain threshold”; or “the lowest number of pests that cause damage”
-central concept in integrated pest management (IPM)

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54
Q

Integrated pest management (IPM)

A

a comprehensive pest technology that uses combined means to reduce the status of pests to tolerable levels while maintaining a quality environment

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55
Q

what is the philosophy of integrated pest management?

A

to limit economic damage to the crops and simultaneously minimize adverse effects on non-target organisms in the crop and surrounding environment and on consumers of the produce

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56
Q

How do we know when it is worth it to manage a pest?

A

Gain threshold (bushel/acre) = management cost / market value (C/V)
-if the answer is greater than 0, it is worth it to manage the pest (yield to save by management)

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57
Q

Economic threshold (ET)

A

the number of insects that should trigger a management action
- “action threshold”

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58
Q

types of insecticides?

A
  1. Natural products
    -alkaloids (nicotine), rotenone, pyrethrins, neem, etc
  2. Synthetic products
    -nicotinoids or neonicotinoids, pyrethroids, carbamates, organochlorines, organophosphates
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59
Q

what are the issues with insecticides? (5)

A
  1. toxicity to humans (lethal and sub-lethal effects)
  2. biomagnification (concentration of pesticides higher in higher trophic levels)
  3. Disruption of regulation by natural enemies
  4. secondary pests (by killing their natural enemies)
  5. selection for resistant pests
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60
Q

biological control (BC)

A

use of living organisms to suppress population density or impact pest populations
-three types (classical BC, augmentation BC, conservation BC)

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61
Q

how many cases of pesticide toxicity per year? How many fatalities?

A

1-5 million cases per year worldwide
-20,000 fatalities per year (99% in developing countries)

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62
Q

Classical biological control

A

importation and establishment of exotic natural enemies

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63
Q

Augmentation BC

A

periodic release of natural enemies

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64
Q

Conservation BC

A

enhance populations or impact of natural enemies already present

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65
Q

soybean aphids in Manitoba

A

-invasive species, detected in Wisconsin in 2000
-causes 40-50% yield losses of soybeans
-potential virus vector

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66
Q

what is the most effective way to control soybean aphids?

A

-a study found that predator + parasitoid or just a predator was the most effective method in controlling soybean aphids (just parasitoid alone was not effective)
-both had a greater yield than the no aphid control group of plants

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67
Q

other pest control measures (other than BC) (6)

A
  1. Host plant resistance
  2. Physical control
  3. Cultural control
  4. Pheromone and other insect attractants
  5. Genetic manipulation of insect pests
  6. RNA interference (RNAi)
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68
Q

Orange wheat midge

A

most important pest of wheat in Canada
-losses are 3-300 million per year
-hard to control with insecticides
-controlled by the Sm1 resistance gene (host-plant resistance; causes larvae to die when feeding on the plant)

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69
Q

what do beneficial insects need to complete their lifecycle? (7)

A
  1. Overwintering sites
  2. Alternative prey/hosts
  3. Nectar or pollen resources
  4. Moderated microclimates
  5. Host plants
  6. Aggregation sites
  7. Refuges from agricultural disturbances
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70
Q

traditional vs landscape ecology studies

A

Traditional field studies: only sample one specific area/field

Landscape ecology scale studies: samples a variety of landscapes around the field
-can compare to the samples done in the one specific field

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71
Q

Landscape

A

an area that is spatially heterogeneous (different) in at least one factor of interest
-ex: a corn field is NOT a landscape, since it only has one crop

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72
Q

Patch

A

surface area that differs from its surroundings in nature or appearance

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73
Q

Fragmentation

A

breaking up of habitat or cover type into smaller, disconnected panels

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74
Q

Cover type

A

category within a classification scheme defined by the user that distinguishes among the different habitats, ecosystems, or vegetation types on a landscape

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75
Q

land composition

A

proportion occupied by different habitats
-relative habitat richness
-habitat diversity

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76
Q

land configuration

A

habitat connectivity
-habitat fragmentation

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77
Q

what characteristics do complex landscapes have compared to simple landscapes? (7)

A
  1. Higher % of deciduous forests
  2. Lower % area covered by crops
  3. Smaller fields
  4. Wider field borders
  5. Taller vegetation in the border
  6. Higher richness of tree species in the border
  7. Higher % of trees/shrubs in the border
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78
Q

how do crop areas impact pests and parasitoids?

A

-herbivory increases with more crop areas
-parasitism decreases with more crop areas
-need natural habitats for parasitoids in order to have effective pest control

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79
Q

cereal leaf beetle (CLB)

A

-attacks wheat
-native to europe
-first found in southern Michigan in the 1960’s
-Now found in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia
-55% yield loss/spring wheat; 23% yield loss/winter wheat in North America
-larvae covers themselves in feces to avoid predation

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80
Q

what parasitoid was introduced to control cereal leaf beetles?

A

-Tetrastichus julis
-native to Europe
-established in British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan
-up to 33% parasitism in Lethbridge, AB
-current releases include west Manitoba

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81
Q

landscape effects on cereal leaf beetles

A

-increased number of cereal crops = increased number of CLB
-higher the diversity of crops = the lower number of cereal leaf beetles
-increased parasitism = decreased CLB numbers

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82
Q

landscape effects on parasitism of CLB

A

-the presence of cereal plants increased the rate of parasitism
-% of canola and alfalfa (flower-providing crops) in the landscape increased the rate of parasitism

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83
Q

melon aphids

A

agricultural pest

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84
Q

which insects attack melon aphids?

A

-lady beetles, beetles, spiders, flies, etc
-many predators can prey on aphids, since they have no defenses other than reproducing rapidly
-many insects can be used for biological control of aphids

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85
Q

how does the timing of predator arrival impact pest control?

A

-the control is much more effective when predators arrive early
-predators early= 61% aphid population reduction; predators late= 32%

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86
Q

landscape vegetation effects on pest control of melon aphids

A

-the % of alfalfa impacts the predation rate
-increased % of alfalfa = increased rate of mortality of aphids

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87
Q

how does landscape complexity effect soybean aphid control

A

-more corn and soybean crops = lower predation rate
-more diverse landscape = higher predation rate
-reduces the need to spray for insecticides, saving $239 million/year in the US

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88
Q

landscape effects on soybean aphids

A

-more cereal crops (wheat, oat, barley)= lower proportion of aphids
-more canola = higher proportion of aphids

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89
Q

predator effects on soybean aphids

A

-best natural enemies were found to be lacewings
-natural enemy movement explains levels of aphid suppression

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90
Q

key findings of landscape impacts on insects (5)

A
  1. complex landscapes affect beneficial insects by providing resources from non-crop habitats
  2. crop diversity decreases some pest populations (since pests are generally crop specific)
  3. pest suppression in complex landscapes is usually higher
  4. natural enemies increase their abundance in complex habitats
  5. some crops may also be a source of predators and parasitoids
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91
Q

how can we enhance natural enemy impacts?

A

-create areas (strips) on fields which provide a permanent vegetation site for natural enemies
-ex: “flowering strip” at the margin of crop fields

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92
Q

Invasive alien species

A

harmful alien species whose introduction or spread threatens the environment, economy, or society, including human health

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93
Q

what is the issue with the definition of invasive alien species?

A

-very biased (cats are ignored since they are house pets; biggest drivers of bird loss)
-honey bees: ecologically beneficial, but can be invasive (cause the decline of native pollinator species)
-species may be considered beneficial by one group and invasive by another (ex wild horses in BC; seen as beneficial by Indigenous communities)

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94
Q

how much are non native species expected to rise globally by 2050?

A

36%
-considered the second most significant threat to biodiversity

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95
Q

what are the three threats that invasive alien species pose?

A
  1. environmental (biodiversity and ecosystem function)
  2. economic (costs/resources required to control pests)
  3. societal and human health
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96
Q

what percentage of Canadian “species at risk” are threatened by invasive alien species?
What percentage of global extinctions do they contribute to?

A

24%, 54% of extinctions

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97
Q

How much does Dutch Elm Disease cost Canada and the US annually?

A

Canada: $30 million
US: $100 billion

98
Q

how much money does 16 invasive species cost Canada annually?

A

$13-35 billion

99
Q

what diseases do invasive mosquitos transmit?

A

dengue, yellow fever, encephalitis viruses

100
Q

how many cases of West Nile virus were reported in Canada in 2007?

A

2353

101
Q

how can invasive plants affect herbivory?

A

hybridization between native and invasive plants can affect herbivory
-change morphology, behavior, or demography of native species
-may also impact at community, ecosystem, landscape, and global leve

102
Q

Dog-strangler vine

A

impacts and lowers the population of milkweed; impacts monarch butterfly populations

103
Q

how many orders drive insect invasions?
Which has the highest number of invasive species?

A

roughly 10 orders
-Hymenoptera have highest numbers

104
Q

Enemy release hypothesis

A

released species (through classical biological control) are free from predators and parasites in the new area, and therefore become invasive

105
Q

Invasional meltdown hypothesis

A

a group of alien species facilitate another’s invasion, increasing the likelihood of ecological impacts
-the introduction of one invasive species drives the succession of another invasive species

106
Q

Utilization of new niches

A

no competitors in the new environment
-ex: earthworms in North America; introduced during colonization

107
Q

cottony cushion scale bug

A

-appeared in CA in 1872
-nearly destroyed the citrus industry by 1886
-The vedalia ladybeetle were introduced via classical biocontrol in 1889 (129-500 individuals)
-by 1889, the scale bug was almost extinct in CA
-costed 1,500 to control, but saved millions
-lead to massive importations of natural enemies

108
Q

lifecycle of soybean aphids

A

clones are produced in the spring/summer, feed on soybeans, lay eggs on buckthorn, repeat
(rely on two different plant species)

109
Q

which insects were released to control soybean aphids? What were the impacts?

A

-exotic lady beetles
-their control was so successful that it decreased the capacity of native lady beetle species to control aphid populations (decreased native lady beetle species)
-when prey species are low, we see an increase in native lady beetle populations

110
Q

Spongy moth

A

-can lay over a thousand eggs per oviposition (50-1000 eggs per egg mass)
-Polyphagous (feed on oak, poplar, and birch trees)
-regional outbreaks
-population fluctuations attributed to NPV virus (at high densities) and rodents (at low densities)
-lifecycle: larvae stage in may-june (6 instars), pupate in July, adults in August-September, lay eggs, hatch in May, repeat
-introduced from Europe by an amateur entomologist in Massachusetts in 1869
-in 1889: first defoliation reports
-in 1920: new introduction from Europe
-females from a population are almost flightless; therefore they have a slow spread

111
Q

what was the response to spongy moth invasion?

A
  1. Initially: nothing (since they spread slow, it did not cause urgency)
  2. Physical control: egg mass destruction, Burlap bands for caterpillars
  3. Spray programs: done in defoliated areas
    -done since 1940s
  4. Synthetic broad-spectrum insecticides
  5. Parasites, pathogens
  6. NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus)
  7. quarantine, inspection, monitoring
  8. Insecticides to eradicate new areas of infection
    -first done in Manitoba in 2009
    -control costed the US $194 million from 1985-2004
112
Q

emerald ash borer

A

-kills tens of millions of ash trees in 7 US states and Ontario and Quebec
-arrived in Winnipeg in 2017
-ash loss rates in Great Lake region: 99% within 6 years of arrival

113
Q

symptoms of emerald ash borer invasion (5)

A
  1. Bark splitting
  2. Crown thinning/dieback
  3. Epicormic shoots
  4. Excessive woodpecker activity; stripping bark
  5. D-shaped emergence holes
114
Q

lifecycle of emerald ash borer (8)

A
  1. lay eggs on bark (under the canopy is preferred)
  2. larvae feed for 1-2 years
  3. prepupae (in the final winter)
  4. pupate in the spring
  5. adults emerge in June-August
  6. maturation feeding on Ash trees for two weeks
  7. mating
  8. repeat
115
Q

what part of the emerald ash borer life cycle causes damage to trees?

A

damage comes from the 1-2 years of larvae feeding
-disrupt xylem and phloem in the trees

116
Q

where are the highest densities of EAB first found?

A

near the top of the tree (canopy)
-hard to detect
-spreads to surrounding trees before detection (all trees within 800m at risk)

117
Q

what percentage of EAB invasions are caused by firewood movement?

A

90%

118
Q

EAB response in Winnipeg (5)

A

-SLAM (Slow Ash Mortality):
1. Delimiting survey around known infestations
2. Removal of infected and “at risk” publish ash trees, wood disposal, and tree replacements
3. Injection of selected public ash trees with insecticide
4. Monitoring (using green sticky traps with tree volatiles and beetle pheromones)
5. Communications, public education, and support for private properties

119
Q

Formicidae

A

introduced or invasive ant species

120
Q

what are the six globally invasive ant species?

A

yellow crazy ant, argentine ant, big-headed ant, red imported fire ant, tropical fire ant, little fire ant

121
Q

red imported ant

A

-native of sub-Amazonian South America
-introduced to the US and Caribbean in 1930
-limited by arid conditions and cold temperatures
-queens can produce 1,500 eggs per day (VERY fast reproduction)
-typical colony has 80,000 workers, mature colonies can have 240,000 workers
-predators of insects, earthworms and vertebrates
-decrease populations of ground-nesting birds, small mammals, and reptiles
-painful sting: venom with 95% alkaloids; can also bite
-affects agricultural machinery, crops, and livestock
-US species a few billion dollars per year in control, Australia spends $200 million in 8 years to prevent establishment

122
Q

yellow crazy ant (long legged ant)

A

-originally from East Africa
-expanded to the Caribbean, Indian ocean and pacific islands, SE Asia, NE Australia, and Mexico
-generalist species: predator and scavenger (of grains, seeds, and arthropods)
-have mutualisms with scale insects and aphids for carbohydrates (honeydew)

123
Q

direct vs indirect impacts of biological control agents

A

-direct impacts: bringing a parasitoid or predator to control a pest

-indirect impacts: when a biological control agent has no physical contact with an organism, but still affects it (ex native plant species)

124
Q

example of indirect impacts of biological control agents

A

Gall flies were introduced to try to control knapweeds
-deer mice love gall flies (85% of their diet), which increased the success of the mice (caused an invasion)
-further reduction of native plants (since mice will feed on them)
-Hanta virus happens to be in the area, gets spread from the mice to humans
-NEGATIVE INDIRECT EFFECT on humans

125
Q

prevention strategies for invasive alien species (3)

A
  1. Early detection:
    -surveillance and monitoring in high risk areas
    -diagnostic capabilities to recognize alien species
  2. Rapid response
    -plans and funds in place for a control scheme to prevent establishment
    -education to garner public support for control measures
  3. Eradication, containment, and control
    -physical, chemical, biological, and integrated strategies, quarantine measures, etc.
126
Q

which insect groups are declining? Which are not?

A

-honey bees are not in decline, but native/wild bee species are
-lepidoptera in decline
-oldest known insect orders are declining (despite having had thrived for so long)

127
Q

food chains vs food webs

A

Food chains: direct effects, clear hierarchy

Food webs: multiple links, broader

128
Q

what factor do food chains not take into account?

A

other activities that organisms do to lose energy into account (ex physical energy, decomposing, etc)

129
Q

rule of 10%

A

approximately 10% of energy stores from one trophic level ends up in the next trophic level
-all energy being up-taken through metabolism originally comes from plants (primary producers)
-most plants can only utilize about 10% of full midday sunlight intensity

130
Q

keystone species

A

species on which other species rely on (will suffer without them)
-linked to other species/processes, drives success for others

131
Q

dung beetles

A

-keystone species (extremely important to build ecosystems)
-provide fertilization for plants, create soil, etc.
-drive nitrogen fixation, create habitats for plants and parasitoids, etc

132
Q

darwin and dung beetles

A

-475 species of dung beetles in Australia
-marsupial dung is drier than most mammals
-cattle were introduced during colonization, resulting in pest and disease; since dung beetles were not able to utilize their dung
- imported 43 species of dung beetle, which resolved the issue

133
Q

dung beetle specificity

A

-dung varies in nutritional quality
-dung beetles are attracted to particular volatiles
-some are more specialized, but many different types of dung are useable

134
Q

dung beetle decline

A

-loss of the most important mammals (“largest resource/dung provider”) may lead to the greatest loss of beetle diversity and abundance
-loss of habitat is likely to affect long term sustainability of populations

135
Q

splatometer

A

utilizing car windshields can provide us an estimate of insect abundance
-drive 60 km/hr along two roads of 1.2 and 25 km
-conduct experiment for 10 years
-try not to use cars with too different of a windshield size

136
Q

what percentage of insect decline was found when sampling using a splatometer was done over 10 years?

A

80%

137
Q

which insects are the most affected by decline? why?

A

aquatic
-more sensitive to changes
-almost always spend part of their lifecycle out of water, therefore doubling the chance of their environmental conditions being inideal

138
Q

how much more rapidly are insects declining compared to vertebrate species?

A

insects: 40%
vertebrate: 22%

139
Q

which species of birds have been most impacted by insect decline?

A

-those who rely on insects for food
-farmland (grassland), ground-feeders, and cold-adapted species have been the most affected
-driven by agricultural intensification and grassland habitat loss

140
Q

what factors can make insects susceptible to decline? (6)

A
  1. Habitat specificity (need the right humidity, temperature, food, etc)
  2. Population size (and associated genetic diversity)
  3. Geographic distribution (how much variation in range do they inhabit)
  4. Specialization (ex diet) or symbiotic relationships
  5. Dispersal rate
  6. Reproductive capability
141
Q

intrinsic threats

A

innate threats to the organism
-ex: animals with extremely slow reproductive rates (rhinos: 1 offspring per 4 years)
-must have other adaptabilities to make up for these threats

142
Q

extrinsic threats

A

non-innate threats to the organism
-ex: human caused threats, climate threats, fire hazards

143
Q

what was once the world’s most abundant insect?

A

rocky mountain locust
-disappeared without known cause

144
Q

how many insect species are known to be at risk of decline?
-how much higher is the current rate of extinction compared to the natural rate of extinction?

A

8400 species known
100-1000 times higher

145
Q

how many insect species have likely gone extinct since the industrial revolution?

A

250,000 to 500,000

146
Q

major threats posed on insects (10)

A
  1. Habitat degradation
  2. Deforestation
  3. Agricultural intensification
  4. Land-use change
  5. Insecticide use
  6. Nitrification
  7. Invasive species
  8. Light pollution
  9. Elevated carbon dioxide levels
  10. Climate change
147
Q

why are network approaches useful?

A

-use a set of entities called nodes, which are connected via links
-important to prioritize protecting species of central nodes (keystone species)
-we know what possible solutions are, but we need to figure out how to actually implement them and get society on board

148
Q

what changes are expected to result from climate change?(2)

A
  1. Increased mean temperatures
  2. Increased frequency, severity, and duration of extreme temperature events
    -increased unpredictability in temperatures + weather events
149
Q

temperature anomaly

A

difference in average temperature
-change from average/expected temperatures
-have gotten much warmer

150
Q

what do the changes from climate change mean is going to happen? (4)

A
  1. Increased bias towards warmer than average temperature events
  2. Increased frequency, severity, and duration of phenomena like droughts and heat waves
  3. Warmer winter temperatures, changes in snow and ice cover duration
  4. Changes to growing season length (earlier onset of spring-like conditions and later onset of winter-like conditions)
151
Q

what insect processes are linked to ambient temperatures?

A

insect physiology, development, growth, adult size, and behaviour

152
Q

what are the five ways that climate change has impacted insects?

A
  1. growing season length
  2. synchrony
  3. heat waves
  4. overwinter survival
  5. range expansion/contraction
153
Q

how has growing season length impacted insects?

A

-earlier onset of spring + later onset of fall; drives increased outbreak of pest species
-pests are able to attack budding stages of plants with earlier emergence (used to not be able to)
-aphid reproduction is dependent on environmental conditions; will create as many generations as conditions allow (one extra generation would provide exponentially more aphids)
-some species will respond by extending their ranges and completing their life cycles 2-3 weeks earlier; some species will emerge sooner or fit in a “second” season
-some species have the ability to become bi-voltine instead of univoltine when temperatures increase

154
Q

how has growing season synchrony impacted insects?

A

-many insect lifecycles are synchronized with their host plant
-increasing temperatures does not necessarily influence plant and insect populations equally
-different plant species (ex cherries and apples) may begin to bloom earlier, meaning species who usually pollinate these plants may no longer be able to (if they are not active when the plant begins to bloom)

155
Q

why are butterflies more at risk than other insects?

A

migration and because they rely on plants during their larval AND adult stages

156
Q

how has heat waves impacted insects?

A

-not all insect species are equally affected by bouts of extreme, warm temperatures
-parasitoids have a longer development time (20% longer) when subjected to an increased frequency/amplitude of extremely warm days, which leads to reduced control of aphids

157
Q

how has overwinter survival changed with climate change?

A

several factors that affect overwinter survival in insects under climate change:

-Warmer mean winter temperatures
-Changes in snow and ice cover duration
-Earlier onset of spring-like conditions
-Later onset of winter-like conditions

-pests may be able to survive winter, and beneficial insects may not be able to survive

158
Q

how has overwintering of mountain pine beetles changed?

A

-has historically been controlled by the winter (cold conditions kill larvae and adults)
-temperatures under bark below -37 degrees C will kill substantial numbers of beetles
-temps dropping to below -20 in the fall before the beetles are prepared for cold will kill many beetles
-temps dropping below -20 when beetles begin to become active in the spring will kill many beetles
-seeing a large migration of MPB into areas which they were not able to inhabit previously

159
Q

how has overwintering of spongy moths changed?

A

-overwinter as eggs on the trunks of trees
-snow cover increases insulation and also limits predation by rodents
-less snow coverage will allow for MORE control of spongy moths

160
Q

what percentage of non-migratory butterflies have shifted their range northward? southward?

A

northward: 63%
southward: 3%

161
Q

which insects have undergone a range contraction?

A

cold adapted butterfly species
-some have declined by 90%
-those who overwinter as eggs or larvae are most impacted

162
Q
A
163
Q

order and development of aphids?

A

Order: Hemiptera (true bugs)
Development: Hemimetabolous (no pupal stage)

164
Q

how many species of aphids in Manitoba? Worldwide?

A

Manitoba: 324
Worldwide: 3000

165
Q

aphid mouthparts

A

-sucking mouthparts (suck sap from plants)
-since plant sap is mostly water and carbohydrates, they need the nitrogen from the plant to build proteins
-create tons of waste products from the water and sugars in plant sap (honey dew)
-maxilla and mandibles are made into stylets (used to suck sap)

166
Q

aphid reproduction in the spring and summer vs fall and winter

A
  1. spring and summer: parthenogenetic, asexual, mitosis (2n)
    -viviparous (live birth)
    -not cold hardy
  2. Fall and winter: sexually produced eggs, meiosis (n)
    -cold hardy (can overwinter)
167
Q

parthenogenetic

A

no males
-all cell division occurs via mitosis
-all are genetically identical

168
Q

Lifecycles of autoecious aphids

A

-eggs hatch in spring, aphids go through four juvenile stages before becoming adults
-ALL ARE FEMALES
-produce offspring via mitosis (asexual reproduction)
-when overcrowding occurs, some adults are able to produce wings and disperse
-when days begin to get shorter, females which are able to make eggs get produced
-a female then produces a male, then they reproduce to create eggs to overwinter

169
Q

lifecycle of heteroecious aphids

A

-primary host: woody (has above-ground living tissue year around)
-secondary host: herbaceous (has a period of the year with no living tissue above ground)

-in spring: eggs hatch close to the buds on the woody plant (hatch as the bud is released so offspring do not have to travel far for resources)
-go through a few generations, then produce adults that are ALL winged
-these adults refuse to feed on the primary host; fly to the secondary host
-keep producing offspring and forming wings when necessary
-creates a generation of winged aphids which fly back to the woody plant; give rise to a non-winged generation which can produce eggs
-female then begins to produce winged males which fly to the woody plant and mate with egg-producing females

170
Q

evolution of aphid lifecycles

A

-woody hosts: once it is finished flowering in the spring, the leaves will only be making carbohydrates through photosynthesis, not through nitrogenous materials
-aphids on woody plants slow down reproduction in the summer
-likely evolved to become heteroecious to overcome this challenge and speed up reproduction
-some have then evolved to become autoecious on herbaceous plants

171
Q

what factors stimulate wing production in aphids? (6)

A
  1. Time interval (this is NOT photoperiod)
  2. Crowding (receptors on antennae cause hormones which change the nature of the developing embryos to be produced, causing offspring to have wings)
  3. Host deterioration
  4. Predators
  5. Photoperiod (and temperature) (to produce eggs at the end of the season)
  6. Maleness (males are ALWAYS winged)
172
Q

length of development of aphids

A

-very short
-8-10 days from birth to adulthood (at 20C)

173
Q

the case of the moth-riddled carpet

A

-a women had a carpet installed and reported to have found moths invading her house; assumed moths were from the new carpet
-the moth species only ate natural materials, but the carpet was made out of rubber and nylon
-the moths were from a natural fiber tapestry her sister had gifted her

174
Q

how many offspring will female aphids produce daily? for how long?

A

10 young/day for 10 days

175
Q

predators of aphids (10)

A
  1. Lady beetles (larvae + adult; pupa cannot feed)
  2. Hover fly larvae (adults feed on pollen and nectar)
  3. Midge larvae (inject digestive enzymes into larvae which turn aphids black)
  4. Lacewing larvae and adults (brown lacewings adults feed on aphids, green do not)
  5. Parasitoids (three genuses which prey on aphids)
  6. Predatory wasps
  7. Mites
  8. Spiders
  9. Birds
  10. Mammals (ex moose; eat flowers which aphids reside on)
176
Q

forensic entomology

A

any example where evidence of an entomological nature is presented in a case of law
-not just murder cases

177
Q

the case of the imported cannabis

A

-bales of cannabis were seized in New Zealand
-three suspects were arrested; needed proof of importation to support charges
-entomologists were called in to sort through the cannabis for insects
-6 orders, 25 families of insects were found
-none of the species were known to occur in New Zealand; two beetles which were found were only found in Thailand and Burma

178
Q

the case of the contaminated sickle

A

-A body was found with slash marks which were found to be from a sickle
-every man in the village had sickles; how did they narrow it down?
-had every man bring his sickle to the village square and place it on the ground and wait
-the murderer didn’t properly clean their sickle and flies began to aggregate on the murder weapon
-he was convicted

179
Q

myiasis

A

the invasion of tissues of a living vertebrate by fly larvae

180
Q

assumption of forensic entomology

A

arthropods exhibit a clear, consistent pattern of succession in the colonization of an organic matter resource, related to the process and decay and decomposition

181
Q

what are the three major groups of decomposers?

A
  1. flies
  2. beetles
  3. mites
182
Q

what flies are decomposers? (7)

A

-blow flies (most widely used in forensic entomology; first to show up)
-flesh flies
-muscid flies
-Piophilids (cheese skipper)
-black scavenger flies
-phorids (scuttle flies, coffin flies)
-small dung flies (sepsids)

183
Q

which beetles are decomposers? (6)

A

-scarabs
-carrion beetles
-ham beetles
-sap beetles
-skin and hide beetles
-rove beetles (predators)

184
Q

5 stages of decay

A
  1. fresh
  2. bloat
  3. decay
  4. post-decay
  5. skeletal
185
Q

four common traits of homicides in Manitoba

A

-Adult
-Knife
-Fully clothed
-Outside

186
Q

blowfly assembly

A

-assembled on the orifices and wounds
-cannot cut through flesh on their own, need openings to enter
-ex mouth, nose, ears, etc

187
Q

blowfly invasion

A

-eggs and larvae developing in orifices

188
Q

timeline of decay

A

-Day 9: bloat
-day 12: decay
-day 14: exodus (internal temp is above lethal temp for maggots, therefore they need to escape and return repeatedly)
-day 27: puparia (has blowfly larvae characteristics, can be used to ID species)
-day 29: newly-emerged adults (of blowflies)
-day 29: advanced decay
-day 135: advanced decay (cheese skipper larvae are in late succession)
-day 156: dry remains

189
Q

factors affecting succession and determination of post-mortem interval (7)

A
  1. Temperature (increased temp = increased decay rate)
  2. Location (different insect communities in different locations)
  3. Season (winter freezes bodies and stops decay)
  4. Rainfall/humidity
  5. Exposure (different conditions=different decay; ex mummification)
  6. Vertebrate activity (scavengers affect carcasses)
  7. Drugs (that the decedabt took can be found in the puparia cases of blow flies; may speed up blowfly development)
190
Q

development rates of blowfly larvae at 30C, 26C, 23C, 14C, 10C, and 4C?

A

-30 C : 144 hours
-26C: 120 hours
-23C: 192 hours
-14C: 298 hours
-10C: 576 hours
-4C: 1056 hours

191
Q

when are entomologists called for forensic cases? (4)

A
  1. Cases of abuse
  2. Moved corpses
  3. Old corpses
  4. When positive identification is possible
192
Q

cultural entomology

A

examines the influence of insects on human societies
-impact on crops, disease transmission, products, etc.

193
Q

where do we see insects in culture?

A
  1. historical events (wars, plagues, discoveries)
  2. symbolism (religious, language, paintings, jewelry, etc)
  3. entertainment (sports, movies, music)
194
Q

the silk road legend

A

an empress was drinking tea under a mulberry tree when a cocoon fell into her cup and she found a thread of extraordinary texture. She discovered a way to rear the silkworms and silk, and use it to make garments

195
Q

the silk road outcome

A

the secret of silk production created a commercial monopoly and was guarded by the Chinese for centuries
-lead to the creation of the world’s largest highway in 139 BC (goes from China to Europe; silk, jade, gold, and other commodities were transferred on the road)

196
Q

how many cocoons does it take to get a pound of silk?

A

2000-3000

197
Q

how do you get silk from a cocoon?

A

-stands of silk are cemented together by sericin
-must boil cocoons to get rid of the sericin and free the silk strands (fibronin)
-one strand of silk is 300-900m long

198
Q

what is the oldest known illustration of an insect?

A

engraved on a bison bone found in a cave in France

199
Q

Ancient Egypt symbolism

A

Scarab beetles
-morphology: spines look like sun rays, warrior appearance
-behavior: rolling, imitates movement of the sun. 28 days to develop, like the moon.
-metamorphosis: emergence from nothing (dung). Autogenesis and renewal

200
Q

Navajo symbolism

A

cicadas/locusts
-creation myth: cicadas/locusts serve as scouts
-heavily involved in some of the creation stories of cultures/religions

201
Q

Hopi symbolism

A

cicadas
-Kachinas (spirit beings:) humpbacked flute players, which led people into the 4th world. Spiritual messengers for the Hopi people.

202
Q

butterfly symbolism

A

-represents resurrection
-often found on tombstones
-Psyche: goddess of souls (also a butterfly genus)

203
Q

bee symbolism

A

-representative of France (will defend its hive and produce honey for their own)
-seen as hard workers, sign of prosperity
-”symbol of a republic with a chief with a sting but producing honey”
-”industry has its sure rewards”

204
Q

which orders are most represented in visual arts?

A
  1. hymenoptera
  2. lepidoptera
205
Q

firefly symbolism

A

-represent souls of people who recently died

206
Q

ladybeetle symbolism

A

-represents luck (“the redder, the better”)

207
Q

what do flies symbolize in paintings? Butterflies?

A

-flies: brevity of life, decay, sin, and corruption
-butterflies: soul

208
Q

15th century paintings

A

-flies indicate someone has died
-shows talent of an artist (makes people think the fly is real)

209
Q

17th century paintings

A

-most insect orders are represented
-still life with insects

210
Q

20th century paintings

A

-resurgence with surrealism
-often with essential parts missing
-often represents humans

211
Q

how was decorative fabric made?

A

beetle elytra

212
Q

cochineal dye

A

made from insects
-red dye
-some people are allergic

213
Q

which insects was paint made out of?

A

Burpestid beetles

214
Q

sports using/inspired by insects (4)

A

-cricket fighting (china)
-beetle fighting (Thailand/Japan)
-fly fishing (bait is used to mimic insects found in the environment)
-kung fu (mantis)

215
Q

what was the issue with Jurassic park?

A

-mosquito pictured in film is a male mosquito, which are not blood feeders
-the genus pictured (identifiable by bent mouthparts) do not feed on blood at all
-other “mosquito” pictured is a crane fly, not a mosquito
-we do not have any fossilized mosquitoes from the jurassic area
-oldest mosquito found is from the Cretaceous period; was found to have blood-feeding mouthparts

216
Q

which orders are most represented in music? On album covers?

A

music: hymenoptera, lepidoptera, diptera
covers: coleoptera

217
Q

pest

A

an organism that interferes with human interests
-damaging crops or commodities

218
Q

how many species of insects were found on average from a sample of 50 homes?
-most common?

A

-93 species on insects on average were found
-most common: spiders, diptera, coleoptera, hymenoptera
-fleas, mites, termites, etc. are fairly uncommon

219
Q

key findings from a sample of 50 homes? (7)

A
  1. Arthropod diversity was highest in the basement
    -the higher you go, the less diversity
  2. The most common arthropods were the same in most rooms
    -ants, cobweb spiders, carpet beetles, dark winged fungus gnats, gall midges
    -only different in the basement
  3. Diversity increased in rooms with carpets
    -more dust mites, carpet traps insects, etc.
  4. Diversity increased with more doors and windows
  5. Common rooms hosted the most types of arthropods
    -tend to be larger, therefore can host more arthropods
  6. Basements hosted a different community of arthropods than other rooms
  7. Arthropod diversity and community were not affected by residents (humans or pets)
    -other studies say that messier houses have more spiders and that houses with cats have less arthropods
220
Q

types of insects inside of houses (6)

A
  1. Stored product pests
    -associated with food or natural fabrics
  2. Structural pests
    -damaging to building structure
  3. Ectoparasites
    -associated with humans or their pets
  4. Nuisance/health hazards
    -unpleasant, can transmit disease
  5. Seasonal invaders
    -come in to spend the winter
  6. Beneficial arthropods
    -eat some of the above pests
221
Q

common stored product pests?

A

flour and grain beetles, indian meal moth, carpet and larder beetles

222
Q

flour and grain beetles

A

-mostly in grains and cereals
-2-4 mm long
-enter in food

223
Q

indian meal moth

A

-associated with grains and cereals
-webbing characteristic (from larvae)
-weaky flying moths
-enter in food (pet food, bird seeds)

224
Q

carpet and larder beetles

A

-6-10 mm long
-banded adults
-hairy larvae
-larvae feed on fats and proteins, hair and skin
-larvae enter in food; adults can enter from outside in the spring or early summer

225
Q

common structural pests?

A

carpenter ants, powder post beetles

226
Q

dealing with stored product pests (3)

A
  1. Prevent entry:
    -examine human and pet food brought into the house
    -freeze foods likely to contain pests
    -isolate pet and wild bird food
  2. Prevent cross contamination:
    -keep food sealed in insect-proof containers
    -empty containers before refilling
    -clean up spills of vulnerable foods
  3. Vacuum and move things around
227
Q

carpenter ants

A

-black or brown ants roughly 12mm long
-nest in rotten wood but do not eat wood (cannot nest in healthy wood)
-sign of wood decay
-common outdoors in tree stumps or other areas with decaying wood

228
Q

powder post beetles

A

-parallel sided beetles but seldom seen
-tooth pick sized holes in furniture or structural timber (larvae emerge from the holes)
-fine saw dust from the holes (from when larvae emerge)
-transported in infested wood

229
Q

dealing with structural pests (2)

A
  1. Prevent/discourage entry
    -do not transport infested wood or furniture (powder post beetles)
    -remove rotting wood from buildings (carpenter ants)
    -stack firewood off ground and away from buildings (carpenter ants)
  2. Baits and traps (for carpenter ants)
230
Q

where are ectoparasites found

A

-95% of the issue is the environment (eggs, 50%; larvae, 35%; pupae, 10%)
-on pets/humans: adults, 5%

231
Q

control strategies for ectoparasites? (6)

A
  1. Vacuum where pest sleep/rest
    -remove flea dirt, eggs, and some larvae
    -steam cleaning is even better (kills)
  2. IGRs to carpets to present reinfestation
    -(insect growth regulators; disrupts development)
  3. 5-10% borate solution to carpets/mats
  4. Green LED light (515 nm) is most attractive to cat fleas
  5. Foggers (only minimally effective)
  6. Ultrasonic devices do NOT work
232
Q

common nuisance pests?

A

cockroaches, house flies and allies, fruit flies, ants, moth/drain flies, silverfish and firebrats

233
Q

cockroaches

A

-1-4 cm long
-like warm places, sewers, wall spaces
-favor protein and fat, but will eat most things
-seldom fly
-enter in infested items or from adjacent apartments

234
Q

house flies and allies

A

-enter through windows, doors, etc
-larvae grow in manure or garbage
-excellent transmitters of disease organisms

235
Q

fruit/vinegar flies

A

-larvae develop on decaying fruits or vegetables
-enter on food (usually as eggs)
-like alcohols; eat fruit and vegetables as they ferment and create alcohols

236
Q

ants

A

-narrow waisted, mostly not winged, 1-12 mm long
-attracted to sugars, construct foraging trails
-may nest in house structure or outside

237
Q

moth/drain flies

A

-often associated with bathrooms
-live in clogged drains (places with humid fungus)

238
Q

silverfish and firebrats

A

-like warmer and dryer environments

239
Q

dealing with nuisance pests

A

Prevent/discourage entry:
-maintain window screens, seal wall cracks
-avoid bringing in infested items (cockroaches)
-manage outside sources (ant nests, garbage management for flies)
-do not leave food or food waste exposed
-vacuum and clean frequently
-reduce water source availability in the house (cockroaches)

240
Q

how to control infestations? (4)

A
  1. Traps (cockroaches, flies, ants)
  2. Vacuuming (cockroaches, ants, beetles, moths)
  3. Diatomaceous earth; causes insects to dry up and die (cockroaches, ants)
  4. Insecticides (baits; ants and cockroaches. Space sprays; flies. Residual sprays)
241
Q

sowbugs/pillbugs

A

-isopods, NOT insects
-sometimes a pest in gardens; sometimes in homes
-enter windows left open or come up from laundry room drain
-place window screen over basement drain

brookie (19 decks)

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