EXAM 1 Flashcards
History of Psychology
The word “Psychology” comes from the 2 Greek words for “soul” (PSYCHE) and “study” (LOGOS).
The word has been around since the 16th century, however, psychology was not until the 1800’s that it became recognized as a SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE.
Psychology really has its ROOTS in both PHYSIOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY and can be seen, even today, as a kind of MIXTURE of these two disciplines.
WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920)
Commonly credited with being the “founder of Psychology.”
He was a physiologist originally who established the first psychological research laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879.
Under Wundt’s direction, Psychology took on the definition of the “scientific study of the conscious experience.”
STANLEY HALL (1846-1924)
Student of Wilhelm Wundt.
Brought Psychology to America by establishing America’s first psychological RESEARCH LABORATORY at John Hopkins University in 1883.
Established America’s first psychology JOURNAL and became the founder of the now well-known and well-established American Psychological Association (APA).
STRUCTURALISM
EDWARD TITCHNER
Student of Wilhelm Wundt.
Immigrated with STRUCTURALISM to the United States, where it flourished and became locked in battle with another school of thought, known as FUNCTIONALISM.
Structuralism is based on the “notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related.”
Edward Titchener was heavily influenced by the PHYSICISTS of the time who were attempting to break down matter into its component parts.
Structuralism relied on INTROSPECTION as its primary means of determining the basic “particles” of conscious thought. Introspection: “the careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.”
FUNCTIONALISM
WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910)
Functionalism is based on “the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.”
William James was heavily influenced by what was going on in BIOLOGY at the time, in particular, by the teaching of Charles Darwin, who was proposing his concept of NATURAL SELECTION. Natural selection: is the idea that “characteristics that provide a survival advantage are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be selected over time.”
BEHAVIOURISM
JOHN WATSON (1878-1958).
Behaviourism proposes that “scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour.”
In a nutshell, Watson was urging scientists to ABANDON the study of consciousness entirely and focus instead on only those behaviours which were OBSERVABLE, claiming that only those things which can be OBJECTIVELY OBSERVED AND MEASURED, can be studied scientifically.
Watson went on to make the then RADICAL CLAIM that our behaviours are determined almost exclusively by EXPERIENCE and not by HEREDITY.
Watson was quoted as saying:
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.”
Watson essentially said that we are shaped solely by our experiences and not at all by our biological constitution.
the NATURE VS NURTURE DEBATE was born—which has more influence on our psychological development: Our genetic make-up (nature) or our life circumstances (nurture).
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
MAX WERTHEIMER (1880 - 1943)
Emerged as a reaction to the breakdown philosophy of structuralism.
While structuralists were trying to break down the experiences into their elemental parts, Gestalt psychologists were focused on the whole experience, claiming that that the “whole is greater than the sum of its parts” This is referred to as SYNERGISM.
Psychoanalysis (also referred to as Psychoanalytic Theory or Psychodynamic Theory)
SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)
Freud brought us the PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY. His ideas were “out of the norm” and consequently, Freud’s ideas were met with considerable reluctance.
Freud was originally a PHYSICIAN, and his theory of psychoanalysis came from his experiences treating patients with psychological problems, including those with OBSESSIONS AND COMPULSIONS, IRRATIONAL FEARS (phobias) and other ANXIETIES and concerns.
According to Freud, we are motivated to behave in particular ways due in large part to the URGINGS of our UNCONSCIOUS. The unconscious refers to that aspect of ourselves which is not under our conscious control or awareness, but nonetheless contributes to our behaviours.
Freud went on to propose that much of our behaviour is governed by our SEXUAL URGES.
B. F. SKINNER (1904-1990)
B.F. Skinner endeavored to return behaviourism to a STRICTER FOCUS on OBSERVABLE behaviour once again.
Skinner made the cover of Time Life Magazine in 1971.
Skinner proposed that “all behaviour is governed by external stimuli”… and has nothing to do with our conscious decisions.
Skinner concluded that there was no such thing as FREE WILL. Skinner, like Freud, endured much criticism.
HUMANISM
CARL ROGERS (1902-1987) & ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970)
Humanism developed in large part as a back lash against Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism. Both schools of thought were seen as DEHUMANIZING (not hard to understand, given that Freud claimed that our behaviours were the product of our unconscious selves and Skinner claimed that there was no such thing as free will!)
Humanism emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, particularly our freedom and potential for personal growth.
Humanists argue that what determines our behaviours stems largely from our own personal self-concepts, our individual need to fulfill our potentials and evolve as individuals.
4 major “SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT”
STRUCTURALISM
FUNCTIONALISM
BEHAVIOURISM
HUMANISM
6 major perspectives on human behaviour typically identified as ‘modern day psychological perspectives.’
Psychodynamic Perspective Behavioural Perspective Humanistic Perspective Cognitive Perspective Sociocultural Perspective Biological Perspective
DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION of human behaviour.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
SCIENTISTS and STUDENTS who FORMALLY PRACTISE and STUDY psychology are REQUIRED to conduct their observations in a way that is FREE OF BIAS and be JUSTIFIED by something BEYOND simply their OPINIONS. They are required to EMPLOY & STUDY the SCIENTIFIC METHOD, which involves the application of a SET OF RULES for making EMPIRICAL or “real-world” observations.
The scientific method ensures a rigorous, objective and unambiguous investigation as a result of adhering to a set of rules (the SCIENTIFIC METHOD). The common sense approach does not adhere to any rules and is therefore particularly VULNERABLE to the effects of INCONSISTENCY, SUBJECTIVITY and AMBIGUITY.
So the scientific method provides psychologists with a means of ensuring OBJECTIVITY.
The SCIENTIFIC APPROACH to the collection of evidence is SYSTEMATIC, evaluating ALL of the available evidence, and seeking CONFIRMATION (not “proof”) of a theory.
The COMMON SENSE APPROACH often seeks out CONFIRMATORY EXAMPLES supportive of its position and IGNORES disconfirming evidence.
FRITZ HEIDER (1958)
A prominent SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST who studied how people go about trying to UNDERSTAND other people’s behaviours.
Formally introduced the idea that that people are like “AMATEUR SCIENTISTS”.
He observed that people are really sort of “NAÏVE SCIENTISTS” piecing together information until they arrive at a reasonable explanation or cause of the behaviours of others.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
In the interests of PRECISION & OBJECTIVITY, scientific language employs OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS:
A precise set of procedures or operations used to measure or manipulate a concept.
In each case, the use of an operational definition tells others precisely WHICH of the many possible ways anxiety COULD BE measured, it actually WAS measured and allows them to REPEAT the research in ALL of its essential DETAILS.
The using operational definitions to communicate the findings provides psychologists with PRECISION.
Scientific Investigations
THEORY –> HYPOTHESIS –> EMPIRICAL TEST
Scientific investigations investigate VARIABLES and the RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THEM.
THEORY
An explanatory account of a well-defined subject matter.
