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Bio For Health Majors > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

gene

A

segment of DNA

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2
Q

open chromatin

A

open for RNA polymerase to attach
no longer a double helix

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3
Q

general transcription factor

A

bind DNA for RNA polymerase to bind to

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4
Q

gene specific transcription factor

A

activate or silence gene expression in a DNA sequence by binding to that region
regulates gene expression

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5
Q

RNA polymerase

A

binds to DNA
reads DNA from 3’ to 5’
builds mRNA from 5’ to 3’
does not proof read of correct

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6
Q

mRNA

A

messenger RNA, copy of template DNA to be translated into amino acid chains.

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7
Q

exon

A

exit the nucleus to be translated, genetic material for proteins

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8
Q

intron

A

do not code for proteins
spliced out of mRNA in processing

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9
Q

rRNA

A

ribosome
translates mRNA

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10
Q

tRNA

A

transfer RNA
links genetic code with amino acid
delivers anti codons

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11
Q

codon

A

triplet of nucleotide bases from mRNA

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12
Q

start codon

A

starts the process of translation
AUG

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13
Q

stop codon

A

stops the process of protein synthesis
ribosome stops processing mRNA
UAA
UGA
UAG

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14
Q

amino acid

A

molecules that form proteins through translation of mRNA codons and tRNA anti codons

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15
Q

What is the difference between DNA and RNA molecules

A

DNA- deoxyribose, A/G/C/T bases, double helix
RNA- ribose, A/G/C/U bases, single strand

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16
Q

What is the difference in base pairing between RNA and DNA

A

DNA uses Thymine while RNA uses Uracil

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17
Q

Transcription

A

mRNA copies of genes are made by RNA polymerase through initiation, elongation, and termination

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18
Q

Transcription Initiaion

A

1- Chromatin is opened
2- Transcription Factors bind
3- RNA polymerase binds
4- double helix is unwound
5- RNA synthesis begins

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19
Q

Transcription Elongation

A

1-RNA polymerase moves down template strand from 3’ to 5’
2-mRNA is built form 5’ to 3’ adding nucleotides to the 3’ end
3-pre mRNA chain peels away to be processed and the double helix reforms

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20
Q

Transcription Termination

A

terminator signal in gene sequence causes RNA polymerase to fall off stopping RNA synthesis

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21
Q

Directionality

A

DNA is read from 3’ to 5’ while mRNA is made from 5’ to 3’

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22
Q

mRNA processing

A
  • guanine cap is added to the 5’ end
  • poly adenine tail is added to the 3’ end
    -introns are spliced out
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23
Q

Translation

A

mRNA used to make proteins built by ribosomes
initiation, elongation, and termination

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24
Q

Translation Initiation

A

1- initiation factor binds to ribosome and facilitates binding to mRNA strand
2- Initiation factor bind to A site
3- tRNA binds to P site with anticodon of AUG
4- initiation factors release

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25
Q

Translation Elongation

A

1- tRNA enters A site
2- peptide bond forms between amino acids and P and A site
3- Translocation- ribosome moves down mRNA strand, the uncharged codon moves into the E site
4- the Next tRNA in A site pushes tRNA in E site out

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26
Q

Translation Termination

A

1-Ribosome reaches stop codon, which has no tRNA or anticodon
2- protein enters A site and cuts the peptide chain lose to folded
3- ribosome releases mRNA

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27
Q

Properties of genetic code

A

triplet
non over lapping
punctuated
degenerate
unambiguous
universal

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28
Q

Amplifying gene expression

A

controlled by transcription factors

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29
Q

mutation

A

change in structure of gene

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30
Q

point mutation

A

change in 1 base pair of DNA
silent, missense, and nonsense

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31
Q

silent

A

change in DNA base pair but amino acid stays the same
no effect

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32
Q

missense conservative

A

amino acid changes
same characteristics and can still function and fold closely to as it would’ve
amino acid stays polar charged
reduced functionality

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33
Q

missense nonconservative

A

amino acid changes
different structure and function when folded
amino acid goes from polar charged to polar uncharged
gain or loss of functionality

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34
Q

nonsense

A

change to stop codon, protein ended early has no function
loss of functionality

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35
Q

frameshift

A

addition or deletion of a base
changes how the mRNA is read
gain or loss of functionality

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36
Q

transcription factors

A

determine which genes are expressed
bind to control region of gene
recognize sequence of base pairs on DNA strands
wind around until it cand bind

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37
Q

activator

A

helps general transcription factors and RNA polymerase assemble

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38
Q

repressor

A

blocks general transcription factors and RNA polymerase

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39
Q

Enhancer sites

A

impact gene expression patterns far from where the gene is

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40
Q

differential gene expression

A

different types of cells need different genes to function
genes are expressed at different times and amounts in response to different stimuli

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41
Q

interphase

A

not dividing
95% of time
G1, S, G2 checkpoints
G0

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42
Q

mitotic phase

A

development of organism after fertilization
growth/repair of lost/dead/damaged body cells
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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43
Q

leading strand

A

DNA polymerase moves from 3’ to 5’ to build a new strand from 5’ to 3’

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44
Q

lagging strand

A

DNA polymerases builds from 3’ to 5’, so the DNA poly jumps back to the 3’ as helicase unwinds the DNA. This causes Okazaki fragments that need ligase to glue them together

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45
Q

primase

A

makes RNA primer, starting point for replication and adds it

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46
Q

DNA polyermerase

A

builder, replicates DNA and proof reads
binds to nucleotides to form new strands

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47
Q

Helicase

A

unwinds double helix
breaks through H bonds that hold bases together

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48
Q

Ligase

A

joins Okazaki fragment’s and seals nicks in sugar phosphate backbones
glues fragments together

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49
Q

Okazaki fragments

A

fragments of replicated DNA on the lagging strand
later glued together with ligase

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50
Q

replication fork

A

the point where DNA is being unwound

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51
Q

telomeres

A

buffer for chromosomes following DNA
not coding
protects coded DNA from shortening
if too short, cell cannot go through cell division

52
Q

telomerase

A

enzyme with RNA primer to elongate the telomere length gives cell longer life

53
Q

programmed cell death

A

part of development when cells are no longer needed
ex: webbed hands/feet in womb but not at birth

54
Q

hayflick limit

A

used to determine biological age
predicts life span

55
Q

semi conservative replication

A

each DNA strand has 1 new strand and 1 old strand

56
Q

mitosis

A

prophase-DNA condenses, nuclear membrane disappears, nucleolus disappears, spindles form
metaphase-chromosomes align in middle and spindles attach to centromere
anaphase-sister chromatids separate and pulled toward poles
telophase- DNA less condensed and back to chromatin, nuclear envelope reforms

57
Q

problem with lagging strand

A

Problems: DNA poly cannot replicate the ends of chromosomes because RNA primer is removed

58
Q

cell cycle check points

A

G1- normal functions and protein production
S- DNA replication
G2- normal activities and duplication of organelles
G0- differentiated cells exit cell cycle and do specific function in tissues

59
Q

cancer and mutation progression to cancerous cells

A

cells continue dividing despite DNA damage that should case cell death, evade checkpoints, extend telomeres with telomerase, makes energy to keep mutating

-initial mutation inactives a negative cell cycle regulator
-next mutation overactivated a positive cell cycle regulator
-third mutation inactivates a genome stability factor
-additional mutations accumulate rapidly
CANCER CELL

60
Q

embryonic stem cell

A

totipotent and can become any cell

61
Q

germ cells

A

becomes a reproductive cell

62
Q

somatic cells

A

body cells

63
Q

totipotent

A

totally potent can become any type of cell

64
Q

plouripotent

A

can become lots of different types of cells, but not all

65
Q

multipotent

A

can become a certain subset of cells, adult stem cells

66
Q

endoderm

A

inner most layer, lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, pancreas, and liver.

67
Q

ectoderm

A

outermost layer
nervous system and skin

68
Q

mesoderm

A

middle layer
cells migrate between layers
blood vessels, muscles, and bones

69
Q

euchromatin

A

inner
loose and open DNA regions
genes expressed

70
Q

heterochromatin

A

outer
tightly packed regions of DNA
genes not expressed

71
Q

G0

A

differentiated cells exit the cell cycle and do specific functions in the tissue they reside in

72
Q

epithelial tissue

A

thin sheet of flexible tissue forms various surfaces and linings throughout the body
-tightly packed
-barrier
-absorb/secrete
single layered and multilayered

73
Q

connective tissue

A

support, protect, structure, store fat, move nutrients, repairs cells, fibers and gels.
-makes up extracellular matrix
fibrous, loose, blood, bone, cartilage, and adipose
Loose: surrounds organs
Dense: forms tendon, ligaments, and deep skin
Reticular: soft internal organs

74
Q

muscle tissue

A

bundles of long cylindrical cells packed with proteins that contract when stimulated by nervous tissue.
skeletal- voluntary, connected to skeleton
cardiac- involuntary, heart walls
smooth- involuntary, walls of internal organs

75
Q

neural tissue

A

send/transport/receive info through electrochemical signaling
neuron and glial cells

76
Q

fibroblasts

A

secrete proteins

77
Q

extracellular matrix

A

complex structural web of proteins that surrounds and support cells
females II for stretch, males XX

78
Q

organ

A

consists of 2+ interacting tissue that functions as a single unit

79
Q

organ systems

A

2+ organs physically and functionally joined
specific
not isolated from another, work together
various functions bc of specialized cells

80
Q

development

A

coordinated process of cell division and differentiation, controlled by transcription factors and other cell regulators to create multicellular organisms

81
Q

differential gene expression

A

differences in amount/type of gene expressed
between cells of different tissue or same tissue
between cells exposed or not exposed to new stimuli

82
Q

cell differentiation

A

-process in which daughter cell from a stem cell division alters into specialized cell type
-cells become specialized by expressing proteins that give cell ability to do specific jobs and functions

83
Q

what makes cells different

A

different types of cells express different genes or different amounts of one gene depending on the role in the body
-controlled by transcription factors and chromatin structure

84
Q

blood

A

circulating fluid through connective tissue
55% plasma (liquid)
45% red blood cells
not liquid: white blood cells, platelets, red blood cells
made in bone marrow

85
Q

white blood cells

A

fight infection, regulate inflammatory reaction
squeeze through capillaries to reach connective tissue
different types with different functions

86
Q

platlets

A

cell fragments used in blood clotting (hemostasis)
fibrin strand trap and hold platelets and RBC in place

87
Q

red blood cells

A

hemoglobin
blood type is determined by proteins and biomolecules on the surface

88
Q

hemoglobin

A

carries O2 and CO2
picks up O2 in the lungs, pH 7.4, bright red
releases O2 at tissues, pH 7.2, purple/blue

89
Q

erythropoietin

A

hormone that increases red blood cell production in response to falling O2 levels in tissues

90
Q

artery

A

`moves blood away from the heart
thick elastic walls with contracting smooth muscles to control flow and pressure
blood pressure is high
empties into arterioles
high artery walls, high viscosity of blood, high volume, low size arteries

91
Q

capillary

A

thin, small diameter vessels, 1 cell layer thick
capillary beds near almost all cells of body
exchange O2, CO2, nutrients with tissue cells

92
Q

vein

A

return blood from capillaries to the heart
thinner walls and larger diameter than arteries
venules- small veins that drain blood from capillaries to vein
valved prevent back ward blood flow, depends on contraction of muscles

93
Q

pulmonary circuit

A

blood from heart to lungs

94
Q

systemic circuit

A

blood from the heart to rest of body

95
Q

saliva

A

contains amylase, breaks down carbs as chemical digestion
bicarbonate- neutralizes acids
lysozyme- inhibits bacteria
mucin-sticks food together so easier to swallow

96
Q

mucin

A

sticks food together so easier to swallow, creates bolus

97
Q

epiglottis

A

bends to close off trachea and open esophagus

98
Q

esophagus

A

tube which bolus travels down to reach the stomach

99
Q

peristalsis

A

muscle tissue pushes bolus down

100
Q

segmentation

A

contracting muscle tissue surrounding the esophagus continues mechanical breakdown

101
Q

bicarbonate (tums)

A

neutralizes acids because neutral pH is needed to continue chemical break down in stomach

102
Q

pancreas

A

secretes enzymes made in pancreatic juice, produces sodium bicarbonate, delivers products to the duodenum via ducts

also secretes insulin and glucagon

103
Q

amylase

A

breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccrides (sugars)

104
Q

trypsin

A

breaks down proteins into amino acids

105
Q

lipase

A

breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

106
Q

galbadder

A

stores bile

107
Q

liver

A

creates bile

108
Q

duodeum

A

1st section of the small intestine with the most digestion, connected to the stomach

109
Q

small intestine

A

chemical digestion and nutrient absorption into bloodstream
3 segments: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
large surface area to increase absorption

110
Q

large intestine

A

shorter and thicker (colon)
absorption of water and salts
concentrates waste for elimination

111
Q

gastine

A

hormone coordinated by the nervous system
released by the stomach when triggered by proteins presence
causes release of gastric juice

112
Q

secretin

A

hormone coordinated by nervous system
released by small intestine when triggered by presence of acids
causes pancreas to release bicarbonate

113
Q

cholecystokinin

A

hormone coordinated by nervous system
in the small intestine triggered by fat and protein presence
causes galbladder to release bile and the pancreas to release digestive enzymes

114
Q

glucagon

A

secreted when blood-glucose levels are low, causes glycogen to break down into glucose

115
Q

glycogen

A

strand of 3 glucose in the blood stream, helps to balance blood sugar

116
Q

insulin

A

secreted when blood-glucose levels are high to cause glucose to form glycogen

117
Q

microvilli

A

on the outside of the epithelia, increases surface area for absorption

118
Q

gut microbiome

A

helps maintain weight and mental health in the body, healthy bacteria in the body with functions

119
Q

prebiotics and probiotics

A

pre- come from carbs that we can’t digest so microbes can increase
pro- live bacteria found in foods and supplements

120
Q

mechanical digestion

A

physically breaking down food molecules into smaller particles in prep for chemical digestion
(increase surface area for enzymes)

121
Q

chemical digestion

A

carbs, proteins, and lipids are broken down by enzymes into their monomers for use throughout the body

122
Q

absorption

A

monosaccrides and amino acids- absorbed across cells lining the small intestine by active transport and then into the blood capillaries by facilitates diffusion
lipids- transported to lymphatic capillaries by diffusion and exocytosis

123
Q

hormonal control of digestion

A

nervous system coordinates hormonal release such as gastrin, secretin, and CCK at certain landmarks in digestion to control time.

124
Q

where cells of blood are made from common stem cell progenitor

A

cells of blood are made in bone marrow because it is a safe and protective area

125
Q

path of blood flow through the body

A

pulmonary artery/circuit pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and then oxygenated blood back to the heart the pulmonary vein/systemic system then pumps the blood through arteries to the rest of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients

126
Q

clotting

A

platelets clod the hole to prevent bleeding so that body can continue to receive O2

Bio For Health Majors (4 decks)

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