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PSYCH 456: Social Psychology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

3 categories of group-based hierarchy & inequality:

A

Age => Adults > Children (but debatable)

Gender => Men > Women (disproportionate social, political, & military control)

Arbitrary set => Race/ethnicity, class, religion, etc.

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2
Q

opposing forces of inequality:

A

hierarchy-enhancing (HE) processes

hierarchy-attenuating (HA) processes

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3
Q

hierarchy-enhancing processes (HE)

A

processes, procedures, & values that directly or indirectly serve to MAINTAIN group dominance, hierarchy, and/or inequality

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4
Q

hierarchy-attenuating processes (HA)

A

Processes, procedures, & values that directly or indirectly serve to attenuate (reduce) group dominance, hierarchy, and/or inequality

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5
Q

power

A

the relative ability to meet & influence others to get what one needs/wants or create deficits in the needs of others

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6
Q

5 types of power:

A
  1. Harm/Threat
  2. Control of resources
  3. Knowledge
  4. Legitimacy/Violence
  5. Commitment from others (asymmetrical responsibilities)
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7
Q

social dominance orientation (SDO)

A

An enduring generalized preference for hierarchy & inequality

High SDO empathy < Low SDO empathy
High SDO pleasure from suffering of others > Low SDO

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8
Q

self-selection into careers based on SDO (Sidanius et al., 2003)

A

-Low SDO people are more likely to obtain careers in HA institutions & high SDO in HE institutions

HA => Non-profit sector
HE => Criminal justice & law enforcement

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9
Q

SDO & policy/procedural preferences

A

High SDO:
-More likely to hire those with a history of racism
-More likely to prefer legacy admissions over affirmative action admissions
-More likely to allocate resources based on merit (vs. need)

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10
Q

hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths

A

Factors that provide moral or intellectual justification for group-based inequality

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11
Q

assimilation & maintaining inequality

A

Advantaged have a preference for assimilation

Majority group members are more likely to be biased against, allocate less resources to, & support the removal of minority group members (function of assimilation preferences)

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12
Q

powerful groups as norm

A

viewed as the standard for what is ‘appropriate’ behavior (mental schema for both advantaged & disadvantaged)

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13
Q

misperceptions of inequality (Hauser & Norton, 2017)

A

People routinely underestimate the level of inequality between groups (both in advantaged & disadvantaged)

Misperceptions of inequality are associated with the lack of support for policies that redistribute resources

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14
Q

privilege-blindness (Pratto & Stewart, 2012)

A

Self-motives & social comparison (fail to think of own privilege as a form of self-protection)

People in privilege are more likely to think in individual terms than in terms of their privilege group-based identity

=> People in privileged groups often react with anger & oppose group-based policies to alleviate inequality

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15
Q

resistance to change

A

in the absence of clear stake, individuals are often resistant to change

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16
Q

existence bias (status-quo bias)

A

Individuals show bias to evaluate existing policies, procedures, & practices as good, right, & the way things ought to be

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17
Q

longevity bias (status-quo bias)

A

Tendency to assume that longstanding states of the world are better & more right than more recent counterparts

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18
Q

decision-making under socio-economic threat (Sheehy-Skeffington, 2019)

A

Those with less wealth exhibit:
-Less control over life outcomes
-Psychological shift to short-term goals
-Cognitive resources become focused on tasks that address immediate needs rather than

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19
Q

stereotype threat

A

For members of a stereotyped group highly invested in the domain, the threat of being judged & treated stereotypically or possibly fulfilling the stereotype leads them to perform worse in the domain

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20
Q

Steele & Aronson (1995; Stereotype threat)

A

Black & White students completed the GRE questions (told it was an IQ test, or a problem-solving test)

=> Equal scores for “Problem-solving” but white>black for “IQ”

=> Black>White slightly when identified race AFTER, but White>Black when identified race BEFORE

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21
Q

stigmatization

A

Occurs when a person possesses (or is believed to possess) some attribute or characteristic that conveys an identity is devalued in a particular social context

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22
Q

stigmatization characteristics

A

-About self-awareness of a devalued identity
-Can be chronic within a society (race/ethnicity, gender, etc.)
-Or situational/context-dependent (specific physical place/situation)
-Possessing one of these identities can increase one’s exposure to potentially stressful situations (identity-threatening)
-In these situations => Lower self-esteem, achievement, & health outcomes

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23
Q

psychology of bias (Roberts & Rizzo, 2021)

A

Social categorization is automatic & associated w/essentialism

People are embedded within these categories, leading to group competition & conflict in daily life

Segregation, resulting in lack of contact, narrows experiences & reinforces stereotypes

Hierarchy, power, & media

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24
Q

hate crimes

A

A unique form of aggression that includes the intent to harm, but also serves symbolic & instrumental functions for perpetrators

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25
Q

symbolic function of hate crimes

A

message sent to community, neighborhood, or groups

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26
Q

instrumental function of hate crimes

A

affect the actions of the perpetrator & victim groups

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27
Q

Factors associated with hate crimes:

A

-Actual or imagined economic competition with the minority group
-Frustration with minority group
-Membership with an organized hate group
-Right-wing authoritarian personality
-Typically male & 18-24

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28
Q

white supremacy characteristics

A

-Implicit or explicit feeling of White superiority
-Entitlement
-Nostalgia for past (when Whites had unchallenged power/dominance)
-Perceived threat to White identity
-White victimhood

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29
Q

processes of implicit bias

A

-Categorization of an individual target is automatic (quick to categorize)
-Once categorized, implicit associations are activated (societal associations/stereotypes; individuals may have stronger or weaker implicit associations)
-Activation is dependent on situational/contextual cues (some situations are more or less likely to elicit implicit stereotypes)

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30
Q

factors that explain bias

A

-Identity consolidation (‘us’ as not being ‘them’)
-Dealing with personal grievances
-Provides existential certainty (worldview threat)
-Enhances personal or group self-image

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31
Q

devine’s 2-step model of stereotype processing

A

high-prejudiced person has stereotype activated => person’s belief matches the stereotype => bias occurs

low-prejudiced person has stereotype activated => person’s belief doesn’t match the stereotype => if resources are available, bias DOES NOT occur

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32
Q

internal motivation for responding w/o prejudice:

A

primarily motivated by personal reasons

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33
Q

external motivations to respond w/o prejudice:

A

primarily motivated by how they may appear in the eyes of others within a given situation

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34
Q

aversive racism

A

Aversive racists have a conflict between (1) feelings & beliefs associated with egalitarian values & (2) negative feelings about Black people, which is often not acknowledged

(about well-intentioned White people’s behavior towards Black targets)

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35
Q

description of aversive racism theory

A

When norms for appropriate behavior are CLEAR => Act on egalitarian beliefs to behave in a non-prejudiced manner

When norms for appropriate behavior are UNCLEAR => Uncomfortable feelings & anxiety lead to prejudiced behavior

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36
Q

when participants witness an emergency (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986)

A

When alone, helped the Black victim slightly more than the White victim

When bystanders around, helped the Black victim SIGNIFICANTLY less

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37
Q

White participants asked to evaluate Black & White applicants

A

With strong or weak qualifications presented => No discrimination against Black applicants

When qualifications were ambiguous (norms unclear) => Hired significantly less Black applicants (compared to other races)

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38
Q

hostile sexism

A

Explicit antagonistic attitude toward women

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39
Q

benevolent sexism

A

More “positive” paternalistic attitude, but often portrays women as incompetent, weak, on a pedestal for men

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40
Q

women’s appearance & bias (Marlowe et al., 1996)

A

For male applicants => No difference in hiring btwn attractive & less attractive

For female applicants => Less attractive applicants hired SIGNIFICANTLY less than attractive applicants

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41
Q

objectification

A

When a person is primarily regarded as a means through which a given goal can be attained by the perceiver

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42
Q

self-objectification

A

Objectification of women’s bodies causes women to adopt an outsider’s view of themselves, as objects or sights to be appreciated by others

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43
Q

consequences of self-objectification

A

-Increased anxiety (especially abt appearance)
-Increased body shame
-Disrupted cognitive functioning (diminished mental resources)
-Restrained eating

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44
Q

expectations & leadership (Bias on women; Phelan & Rudman, 2010)

A

Applicants described themselves as competitive & having strong evidence of their leadership abilities

Men & women rated as highly competent
Men were LIKED more than women & hired more than women

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45
Q

“Backlash” Effect

A

When a woman uses typically “masculine” techniques to advance (ex: self-promotion), they are judged more negatively than women who don’t use those techniques

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46
Q

men & help-seeking (Siedler et al., 2016)

A

Men are less likely to recognize & communicate symptoms of depression
=> Masculine norms de-incentivize help-seeking

47
Q

men & expectations of masculinity

A

perceived as stoic, higher ability to tolerate physical & emotional pain, autonomous/not needing community, & in-control

48
Q

preoccupation with gender roles & traditional family structures (lesbians & gay men; Henry & Steiger, 2022)

A

Gender inversion stereotypes (gay men as feminine, lesbians as masculine)

Hyperfocus on sexuality (stereotypes about “sexual predator” behavior)

49
Q

transgender skepticism

A

Questioning around the existence of transgender identity

Rooted in perception of “deception” intentions & “identity confusion”

50
Q

gender essentialism

A

Negative attitudes toward those that are gender non-conforming

51
Q

the racial position model (Zou & Cheryan, 2017)

A

Within the U.S., racial/ethnic stereotypes are explained by where a group falls along 2 dimensions

  1. Perceived inferiority-superiority (perceived SES in hierarchy)
  2. Cultural foreignness-americanness (perceived distance from ‘American’ prototype; ideals, respect for social/political service, shared cultural heritage)
52
Q

subordinate male target hypothesis

A

Discrimination experienced by men of subordinate groups–especially from men of the dominant group–is greater than that experienced by women of the same subordinate groups in certain contexts (housing discrimination, genocide, CJS)

53
Q

out-group homogeneity

A

The perception that members of the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are (religion, political orientation, etc.; diversity of latinx cultures)

54
Q

sub-typing

A

Tendency to view stereotype-inconsistent individuals as “exceptions to the rule”

55
Q

descriptive assumptions

A

Create assumptions about the attributes of people & groups (mere presence of target group)

56
Q

prescriptive assumptions

A

Create assumptions about where people & groups should be or what they should be doing

57
Q

“glass cliff”

A

Women & racial/ethnic minorities are more likely to be hired/placed in risky situations/organizations in crisis, compared to men & Whites

58
Q

hypothesis-testing search

A

Expectancies (stereotypes) function as hypotheses & people have expectation-confirmation approach to information (selective weighing of info; selective recall of evidence)

59
Q

shifting standards model (Biernat et al., 1991)

A

-Stereotypes implicitly or explicitly operate as standards by which people are judged
-Standards are subjective & rooted in expectations
-The meaning of attributes differ as a function in stereotyped vs. non-stereotyped groups

60
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy

A

An originally false social belief of another person that leads the other person to fulfill the originally false belief

61
Q

3 steps of the self-fulfilling prophecy

A
  1. Perceiver has expectation (stereotype, schema)
  2. Perceiver behaves towards targets in a way that is consistent with expectation
  3. Target behaves towards perceiver in a way that is consistent with perceiver’s behavior (expectation confirmed)
62
Q

Pygmalion study (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968)

A

Led teachers to believe that some students in their classes were “late bloomers” (destined to show a dramatic increase in IQ) when, in fact, these students were randomly selected
=> “Late bloomers” increased IQ compared to other students

63
Q

an affordance-management model (Neuberg et al., 2020)

A

-Perceivers characterize people/groups in terms of the threats or opportunities they pose for desired outcomes
-Expression of bias is rooted in what bias can do for you vis-a-vie opportunity & threat

64
Q

when minor infractions become a “problem” (Okonofua et al., 2015)

A

After a second infraction:
-Black students more likely to be labeled as a “trouble-maker”
-Teachers were more likely to label it as a diagnostic for a “pattern of behavior” in Black students
-Black students received harsher punishments
-Largely no difference in how teacher viewed White students

65
Q

disparate procedures rooted in racism in local context (Riddle & Sinclair, 2019)

A

Assessed:
-Explicit indicators of racism at county-level
-Black-White racial disparities in school disciplinary actions

Results => Counties with higher rates of explicit biases that favor Whites had greater Black-White disciplinary disparities for in-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, law enforcement referrals, expulsion, & school-related arrest

66
Q

decision to shoot (Plant et al., 2011)

A

-White participants shown a computerized simulation of Black suspects
-Black suspect face paired with an object (neutral or gun)

Results => Quickest to shoot Black MEN (over White men/women or Black women)

67
Q

masculinity & decision to shoot black suspects (Goff, 2012)

A

-White, police officer participants
-Big-screen simulation with suspect approaching (armed or unarmed)
-IVs => Race of suspect (Black or White), Insecure masculinity (low or high)
-DV => Decision to shoot

Results => Participants insecure about masculinity were more likely to shoot Black suspects relative to White

68
Q

REID technique (overview)

A

-Used by most police in US & Canada
-Assumes that detectives can tell who is lying & who isn’t
-Analyzing a person’s verbal & non-verbal behavior

69
Q

truthful verbal & non-verbal behaviors (REID)

A

Verbal => Direct, spontaneous, helpful, concerned about the crime

Non-verbal => Sit comfortably, upright, facing interrogator, maintain eye-contact

70
Q

deceptive verbal & non-verbal behaviors (REID)

A

Verbal => Hesitate before stating denials, mumbling, weak/ambiguous language

Non-verbal => Grooming gestures, anxiety, avoid eye-contact

71
Q

is the REID technique able to improve lie detection? (Kassin & Fong, 1999)

A

IVs: Guilt of suspect (guilty or innocent of mock crime), REID training (yes or no)
DVs: Accuracy of determining who is guilty/innocent, Confidence in assessment

Results => With REID training, interrogators were LESS ACCURATE, but MORE CONFIDENT in their assessments

72
Q

four steps of securing a confession

A
  1. Control the situation (small room, control rewards, minimize distractions)
  2. Distort perceptions of the crime (maximize to worse than was, minimize to less serious that was)
  3. Sympathize with the suspect (good cop/bad cop)
  4. Encourage self-doubt (point out physical symptoms)
73
Q

psychology of false confessions (3 types)

A

Voluntary => No external pressure

Coerced-Compliant =>Person knows they’re not guilty, but confesses to receive a promised reward (or avoid an adverse penalty)

Coerced-Internalized => Innocent suspect induced to believe (sometimes temporarily) they are guilty

74
Q

power of innocence (Kassin & Norwick, 2004)

A

Participants who were truly innocent were significantly more likely than guilty suspects to sign a waiver of their Miranda rights

75
Q

fingerprint matching (Dror & Charlton, 2006)

A

-Took old cases of fingerprint cases, where experts had said there was a match between unknown & known (suspect) fingerprints
-Went back to those same experts & w/o their knowledge, gave the same set of prints

IV: Changed environmental info about the case (not the fingerprints)

Results => ⅔ of the experts made decisions inconsistent with their previous judgments

76
Q

defense attorneys & plea recommendations (Edkins, 2010)

A

Participants (practicing defense attorneys) were given a case describing robbery at a jewelry store

IV: Race of suspect (Black or White)
DV: Number of years in plea recommendation

Results => Defense attorneys were more likely to recommend longer sentences for Black suspects compared to White suspects

77
Q

sentencing & within-race stereotypic effects – looking deathworthy (Eberhardt et al., 2006)

A

-Examined a database of death eligible cases in Philadelphia
-Looked for cases with Black perpetrators
-Then independent raters rated the “stereotypicality” of Black faces (skin tone, hair, lips, etc.)

IV: Stereotypicality of Black defendant (less or more)
DV: Percentage of time a person received the death penalty
Controls: Aggravating circumstances, severity of murder, defendant’s SES, victim’s SES, defendant attractiveness

Results:
White victims => Stereotypically Black defendants received the death penalty much more than less stereotypically Black defendants
Black victims => No significant differences in likelihood of getting the death penalty

78
Q

eyewitness testimony–questioning & misinformation effect (Loftus & Palmer, 1974)

A

-Participants saw a film of a car accident
-Follow-up questions by investigator => “How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?”

IV: Wording (contacted, hit, bumped, collided into, smashed into)
DV: Estimate of speed (in mph)

Results:
-Contacted < hit < bumped < collided < smashed
-When asked if they saw broken glass (a week later) => 34% in “smashed” said yes, but only 14% in “hit” said yes

79
Q

misinformation effect

A

Witnessing an event, receiving misinformation about it, & then incorporating the misinformation into one’s memory

80
Q

own-race bias

A

People are better at recognizing faces of their own race

81
Q

weapon focus

A

Presence of a gun impairs an eyewitness’ ability to accurately identify a perpetrator’s face

82
Q

false memory

A

Recalling events that never occurred or occurred differently

83
Q

principle-implementation gap

A

Among privileged & powerful groups, often a sizable “gap” between support for the principle of equality & support for policies that would achieve implementation

84
Q

procedural justice

A

Perceived fairness of procedures, processes, or methods for determining allocation of resources

85
Q

fair procedures in procedural justice:

A

-Opportunity for participation (voice)
-Neutrality of authority (lack of bias or agenda)
-Trustworthiness
-Respect for all parties

86
Q

distributive justice

A

Perceived fairness of outcomes or resources received

87
Q

information order & justice judgments (Van den bos et al., 1997)

A

Given the same outcome/result, but presented first (before procedure info), people rated the outcome as unfair & illegitimate

88
Q

fair process effect

A

Receiving information that suggests fair process/procedures first, biases people in favor of unequal outcomes

89
Q

contingency theory of justice (Skitka et al., 2011)

A

Individual justice reasoning within situations is contingent on 3 factors:

-Economics => Material & economic goals & concerns of person (Justice perceptions change as a function of economic threat)
-Social => Need to belong, social status, & inclusion goals & concerns of person (Change as a function of perceived loss of inclusion or gain in social status)
-Morality => Individual moral convictions about basic right & wrong (Most likely to drive judgments when material & social needs are satisfied)

90
Q

the flexibility of virtue (Valdesolo & DeStono, 2007)

A

Result 1 => Individuals perceive their own transgressions to be less objectionable than the same transgression enacted by another person

Result 2 => Individuals perceive transgressions & unfair acts committed by the in-group as acceptable, but these same acts are perceived as objectionable when committed by an out-group

91
Q

stratification of the mind

A

Social stratification shapes prior beliefs & justice concerns (Race, class, political orientation, media consumption, distinct neighborhood-based experiences, & negative/positive contact with the CJS inform beliefs & justice concerns)

92
Q

goal of the CJS

A

Deterrence

-The focus of legal authorities & institutions is to shape behavior by threatening to deliver negative sanctions for rule breaking
-Assumes crime is always deterred by threat of punishment and/or experience of punishment

93
Q

problems with deterrence model of CJS:

A

-Cost of surveillance (People are motivated to hide behavior from authorities to avoid punishment)
-Insensitivity to the magnitude of punishment (Likelihood of being punished for their crime, not expected severity of the punishment, is the largest concern for people considering crime)
-Failure to account for ‘hot state’ crimes (Deterrence model assumes rational people, meaning crimes of passion & those committed under intoxication are unaffected)
-Increases distrust & suspicion of targeted communities (Surveillance implies distrust & lowers cooperation w/ & trust in authorities)

94
Q

structural conditions reduce crime (Love, 2021)

A

-Built environment (Renovation of housing, vacant lots, & empty buildings)
-Economic investments (Investment in local businesses, workforce development, & employment programs)
-Social connections & community (Increasing connection & social support within community)
-Community-based orgs to combat violence

95
Q

system-justification

A

People seek to defend, bolster, & justify existing social, economic, political, & corporate institutions & arrangements (psychological tendency to view corporations & institutions as legitimate)

96
Q

status shapes perceptions of legitimacy of institutions (Brandt et al., 2020)

A

Result 1 => People with higher status are more likely to perceive their social system & institutions as legitimate
Result 2 => For lower status people, the more a person perceives there is a social mobility (irrespective if there is for their group), the more they perceive the social system & institutions as legitimate

97
Q

legitimacy & illegitimacy of institutional actions (Kelman)

A

People are quick to legitimize the actions of powerful people, groups, & institutions

98
Q

legitimization

A

The process of re-categorizing an action, policy, or institution, such that what was once illegitimate becomes legitimate

99
Q

delegitimization

A

The process of re-categorizing an action, policy, or institution, such that what was once legitimate becomes illegitimate

100
Q

In-Group Favoritism

A

The tendency to respond more positively to people from our in-groups than we do people from out-groups

101
Q

Shelton & Richeson (2005) findings about in-group/out-group perceptions:

A

-Take credit for successes of in-group members
-Remember more + info than - info about in-groups
-More critical of the performance of out-group members
-Believe their own groups are less prejudiced than out-groups

102
Q

group-serving bias (ultimate attribution error)

A

People make trait attributions in ways that benefit their in-groups, just as they make trait attributions that benefit themselves (out-groups as extremely & unrealistically negative; + of out-group & - of in-group as situational variables)

103
Q

causes of in-group favoritism:

A

-Natural part of social categorization
-We belong to the in-group (similar & familiar to selves)
-Want to feel good about selves (especially when threatened or otherwise worried about self-concept)

104
Q

feelings of social identity

A

The positive self-esteem that we get from our group memberships

105
Q

when in-group favoritism doesn’t occur:

A

-When members of the in-group are clearly inferior to other groups on an important dimension
-When a member of one’s own group behaves in a way that threatens the positive image of the in-group

106
Q

black sheep effect

A

The strong devaluation of in-group members who threaten the + image & identity of the in-group

107
Q

social dilemmas

A

Occur when members of a group, culture, or society are in potential conflict over the creation & use of shared public goods

108
Q

public goods

A

Benefits that are shared by a community at large & that everyone in the group has access to, regardless of whether or not they have personally contributed to the creation of the goods

109
Q

harvesting dilemma

A

When a social dilemma leads people to overuse an existing public good

110
Q

contributions dilemma

A

When the short-term costs of a behavior lead individuals to avoid performing it, & this may prevent the long-term benefits that would have occurred if the behaviors had been performed

111
Q

negative outcomes of social categorization:

A

Distorts our perceptions so that we exaggerate the differences between people in different social groups, but also perceive members of out-groups (in particular) as more similar to each other than they actually are (more likely to fall victim to out-group homogeneity)

112
Q

bogus pipeline procedure

A

Experimenter first convinces the participants that they have access to their “true beliefs” (like by getting answers from a questionnaire at the beginning) => Expect to get more honest answers after this

113
Q

implicit association test (IAT)

A

Participants are asked to classify stimuli that they view on a computer screen into one of two categories by pressing one of two computer keys

PSYCH 456: Social Psychology (3 decks)

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