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NeuroBio > EXAM 2 > Flashcards

EXAM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

How increasing intensity of sensory stimuli is encoded by action potentials and receptor potentials?

A

For receptor potential: The greater the amplitude, the stronger the intensity at receptor potential.
For AP: the greater the intensity the greater the frequency will be.

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2
Q

Which types of senses are mediated by dorsal root ganglion neurons

A

Proprioceptors: pain in muscle, tendon, and joints.
Nociceptive receptors (TRP channels) : pain, temperature, coarse touch.
Cutaneous mechanoreceptors: tactile (touch, vibration, pressure).

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3
Q

What is the function of ABeta afferent fibers?

A

Functions in cutaneous mechanoreceptors and is myelinated.

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4
Q

Slowly and rapidly adapting somatic sensory afferent fibers provide which types of information

A

La fibers provide pain in muscles, tendons, and joints (proprioceptors)
Aepsilon/Cfibers provide general pain, temperature and coarse touch (nociceptive)
Abeta fibers provide touch sensation (mechanoreceptors)

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5
Q

Merkel:

A

slow adapting fibers, function to sense points, edges, and curvature.

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6
Q

Meissener corpuscles:

A

function to sense objects moved across skin

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7
Q

Pacinian corpuscles

A

function to sense skin vibration

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8
Q

Ruffini:

A

function to sense skin stretch

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9
Q

Touch domes

A

function to sense skin indentation in hairy skin

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10
Q

Circumferential endings

A

function to sense skin stroke

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11
Q

longitudinal lanceolate

A

function to sense direction-selective hair deflection and gentle caress (PIEZO1/2 Channels)

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12
Q

Muscle spindles

A

rapidly adapting responses to changes in muscle length (Piezo2)

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13
Q

Golgi tendons:

A

detect changes in muscle tension/muscle force (piezo 2)

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14
Q

Describe the central pathways conveying tactile information from the body:

A

Dorsal root ganglia (mechanoreceptors)3 -> lateral cervical nucleus in spinal cord/dorsal column nuclei in medulla -> contralateral ventral posterior lateral nucleus in thalamus -> contralateral primary somatosensory cortex

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15
Q

What are the regions of the primary somatic sensory cortex?

A

Brodmann 1,2,3a,3b

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16
Q

What lesion to which area of the primary somatic sensory cortex will cause the most severe deficit?

A

Lesion to 3b as it will have profound deficits in all tactile sensations.

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17
Q

Dorsal Column:

A

Tactile + Proprioceptive

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18
Q

Dorsal Column: Second Order Neuron:

A

Dorsal column nucleus neurons in brainstem or lateral cervical nucleus neurons in cervical spinal cord.

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19
Q

Dorsal column arise from

A

mostly axons from first order DRG neurons

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20
Q

Dorsal Column location of crossing midline:

A

Brainstem or cervical spinal cord

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21
Q

Dorsal Column ascending location in spinal cord

A

ipsilateral side of spinal cord.

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22
Q

Anterolateral column

A

Nociceptive

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23
Q

Anterolateral column: Second Order Neurons:

A

Dorsal horn neurons in spinal cord

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24
Q

Anterolateral column arises from

A

second order dorsal horn neurons

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25
Q

Anterolateral column: location of crossing midline:

A

spinal cord

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26
Q

Anterolateral column ascending location in spinal cord:

A

Contralateral side of spinal cord.

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27
Q

Structures involved in the sensory discriminative pain pathway:

A

First order neurons in cranial nerve ganglia > second-order neurons in spinal nucleus of trigeminal complex > Third order neurons in contralateral ventral posterior medial nucleus in thalamus > fourth-order neurons in contralateral somatosensory cortex > sensory discriminative aspect of pain.

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28
Q

Structures involved in the affective-motivational aspect of pain:

A

First order neurons in cranial nerve ganglia > second-order neurons in spinal nucleus of trigeminal complex > third order neurons in midline thalamic nuclei > fourth order neurons in anterior cingulate cortex or insular cortex > affective-motivational aspect of pain.

If done through third order neurons in brainstem and forebrain regions, there’s no need to go through the fourth-order neurons in anterior cingulate cortex or insular cortex.

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29
Q

Hyperagesia:

A

following a painful stimulus associated with tissue damage, stimuli in the injury and surrounding areas that would ordinarily be perceived as slightly painful are perceived as significantly more so (e.g. increased sensitivity to temperature after a sunburn), resulting from both peripheral and central sensitization

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30
Q

Allodynia

A

induction of pain by a normally innocuous stimulus; resulting from inputs from low‐threshold mechanoreceptors to activate dorsal horn neurons (a type of central sensitization)

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31
Q

What neurotransmitter is involved in the placebo effect for pain modulation?

A

Endogenous opioids

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32
Q

What is the gate theory of pain?

A

activation of mechanoreceptors (such as vigorously rub the injure site after crack your shin or stub a toe) modulates the transmission of nociceptive information to higher center

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33
Q

What is the three-neuron chain in the retina?

A

Photoreceptor > bipolar cell > ganglion cell.

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34
Q

What are the sequence of events of phototransduction?

A

Photoreceptor absorbs a photon of light
Double bond breaks and retinal changes from 11-cis to all-trans isomer
Conformational change of rhodopsin leads to activation of a G-protein called transducin
Transducin activates a phosphodiesterase that hydrolyze cGMP
Lowering of cGMP concentration in the outer segment leads to channel closure and hyperpolarization of the cell.

35
Q

Compare the adaptation of rods and cones:

A

Rods: slow. Cones: Fast

36
Q

Compare the convergence of rods and cones:

A

rods: High. cones: low

37
Q

Compare the sensitivity of rods and cones

A

Rods: High. Cones: Low

38
Q

Compare the resolutions of Rods and Cones:

A

Rods: Low. Cones: High

39
Q

On-Center Bipolar Cells:

A

use a G-protein-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptor, glutamate is inhibitory and causes hyperpolarization.
light increment hyperpolarizes photoreceptor and decreases glutamate release- on-center bipolar cells are free

40
Q

Off-center bipolar cells:

A

use ionotropic glutamate receptor, glutamate is excitatory and causes depolarization.
response during light stimulation in the center: light increment hyperpolarizes photoreceptor and decreases glutamate release- off-center bipolar cells withdraw

41
Q

What are the two main functions of center-surround antagonism in receptive fields of the retina?

A
  1. Detect luminance contrast in the border (make ganglion cells sensitive to light-dark borders in the visual scene).
  2. Light adaptation to increase dynamic range of encoding in ganglion cells.
42
Q

Light adaptation is achieved by which two mechanisms in the retina:

A
  1. Photoreceptor light adaptation mediated by decreasing intracellular calcium concentration.
  2. Retinal circuitry light adaptation mediated by surround antagonism from horizontal cells to the center cone cells (horizontal)
43
Q

Oval window:

A

a membrane‐covered opening at the base of the cochlea between middle and inner ear, the site where the bones of the middle ear contact the inner ear

44
Q

Round window:

A

the other opening of the two openings (oval and round windows) from the middle ear into the inner ear

45
Q

Tectorial membrane:

A

covers the mechanically sensitive hair bundles of the hair cells

46
Q

Basilar membrane:

A

bears the organ of Corti and hair cells are situated on top of it.

47
Q

Which structure in the inner ear can act as a spectral decomposer to decompose a sound stimulus to its frequency components?

A

Basilar membrane

48
Q

What is tonotopy?

A

Spatial arrangement of where different sound frequencies are processed in different regions of the auditory system
Apical > basal

49
Q

What can the otoacoustic emission (OAE) test measure?

A

Can measures outer hair cell function in the inner ear

50
Q

Understand the events in mechanoelectrical transduction and what are the ions that mediate depolarization and repolarization of hair cells?

A
  1. Displacement of the hair bundle parallel to the plane of symmetry in the direction of the tallest stereocilia stretches the tip links, opening the cation‐selective mechanoelectrical transducer (MET) channels located at the end of the link and generating a graded receptor potential to depolarize the hair cell (hair cells do not fire action potentials)
  2. Depolarizing graded receptor potentials cause opening of voltage gated Ca2+ channels and transmitter (glutamate) release accordingly, eliciting action potentials in afferent nerve terminal of spiral ganglion neuron
51
Q

What is the ionic composition of perilymph and endolymph

A

Endolymph in scala media is K+‐rich, Na+‐poor due to ion‐pumping cells in the stria vascularis pumping K+ into endolymph
Endolymph is about 80 mV more positive than perilymph or 125 mV more positive than the inside of hair cell
The steep electrical gradient drives K+ through open transduction channels into the hair cell and depolarize the hair cell, causing the opening of voltage‐ gated Ca2+ and K+ channels located in the membrane of the cell soma
Because the perilymph at basal end of hair cell is K+‐poor, Na+‐rich and because EKbasal (‐85 mV) is more negative than hair cell’s resting potential, K+ efflux through somatic K+ channels to repolarize the hair cell

52
Q

How does an auditory nerve fiber connect to the hair cell and what is the tonotopy of auditory nerve fibers?

A

Auditory nerve: spiral ganglion neurons
Tonotopy: fivers terminated to the apical end of the cochlea response to low frequencies and fibers related to the basal end response to high frequencies.

53
Q

What are the tuning curve and characteristic frequency of an auditory afferent nerve fiber?

A

frequency at which a given spiral ganglion neuron responds to the smallest sound intensity
Increase of sound intensity = frequency towards the basal end.

54
Q

Striola

A

specialized area that divides the hair cells into 2 populations with opposing hair bundle polarities

55
Q

otoconia

A

the otolithic membrane, in which are embedded crystals of calcium carbonate; called ear stone. They are embedded in the ultricle and saccule to help detect mechanical forces and send that info to sensory hair cells.

56
Q

Capula

A

dome shaped gelatinous mass over hair bundles where hair bundles extend into

57
Q

What are the functions of the otolith organs

A

Utricle: linear movements in the horizontal plane
Saccule: linear movements in the vertical plane

58
Q

What are the functions of the semicircular canals?

A

specialized to respond to rotational acceleration of the head

59
Q

The firing rate of a vestibular nerve fiber change during acceleration:

A

increase

60
Q

The firing rate of a vestibular nerve fiber change during deceleration:

A

decreases

61
Q

The firing rate of a vestibular nerve fiber change during constant speed/velocity

A

returns to a baseline level.

62
Q

What happens to vestibular hair cells in the right and left horizontal canals when turning the head to the right or left?

A

Whatever side u turn, that side depolarizes, and the other side hyperpolarizes

63
Q

How does a vestibular nerve axon encode inputs from the semicircular canal during angular acceleration

A

Cupula is deflected

64
Q

How does a vestibular nerve axon encode inputs from the semicircular canal during deceleration:

A

Cupula is deflected in the opposite direction

65
Q

How does a vestibular nerve axon encode inputs from the semicircular canal during constant velocity/speed

A

Cupula returns to the non-deflected state.

66
Q

What is the function of the vestibular-ocular reflex?

A

To stabilize gaze

67
Q

Olfactory cilia:

A

several microvilli protrude from a single knoblike dendritic process (olfactory knob) at the apical surface of an ORN.
Once odorants contact the olfactory epithelium, olfaction signaling is initiated.

68
Q

Bowman’s glands:

A

secret muscus- neutralizes harmful agents

69
Q

Basal cells:

A

a population of neural stem cells that divide to give rise to new receptor neurons.

70
Q

Sustentacular cells

A

provides structural support and detoxify potentially dangerous chemical in olfactory sensory neurons

71
Q

Glomeruli

A

spherical accumulations of neuropil lie just beneath the surface of the bulb and are the synaptic target of the primary olfactory axons.

72
Q

What is the sequence of events of order transduction and the proteins involved?

A

Olfactory-specific heterotrimeric G-protein is dissociated by odorant bidning to receptors and activates adenyl cyclase lll > increase in cAMP that opens cyclic nucleotide-gated channels that permit entry of Na+ and Ca2+, depolarizing neurons > depolarization leads to the activation of a Cl- channel > the Na/Ca exchanger extrudes Ca2+ and transports Na+ to repolarize the membrane > increase of Ca2+ and activation of CaMKii restore the olfactory-specific heterotrimeric G-protein and diminish cAMP levels via activation of phosphodiesterases.

73
Q

What are the structural and functional features of the odorant receptor proteins? How do olfactory receptor neurons express odorant receptor genes and where do these neurons express odorant receptor proteins?

A

Receives odorants to stimulate the olfactory cilia.
Expression occurs by only one of the odorant receptor genes.
GPCR, intracellular domain, 400 of them, only one of them expresses OR. Function: receptor specificity.

74
Q

How does olfactory information transmit from sensory receptors to a cortical region? Does it require the thalamus?

A

It does not need the thalamus. Olfactory bulbs send information to the pyriform cortex via the olfactory tract.

75
Q

How is olfactory information processed by mitral cells and pyriform cortical neurons?

A

Projected ipsilaterally via the olfactory tract.

76
Q

Sugar receptors use what subunit(s)?

A

TAS1R2 and TAS1R3

77
Q

Umami receptors use what subunit(s)

A

TAS1R1 and TAS1R3

78
Q

Bitter receptors use what subunit(s)

A

TAS2R

79
Q

Sweet and Umami use what G-protein to bind to their subunit?

A

General G-protein

80
Q

Bitter use what G-protein to bind to their subunit

A

Gustducin

81
Q

What ion channel does Satly receptors use?

A

amiloride-sensitive Na+ channel

82
Q

What ion channel does Sour receptor use?

A

OTOP1

83
Q

What ion channel does Sweet, bitter, and umami use?

A

TRPM5

84
Q

What are the two otolith organs?

A

Utricle & Saccule

NeuroBio (15 decks)

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