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Geology 201 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a sediment?

A

A collection of loose earth minerals

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2
Q

What counts as an earth mineral?

A

Rocks, minerals, soils, and fossils

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3
Q

Where on earth is very little sediment found?

A

At the tops of mountains

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4
Q

How can sediments form?

A

Rocks breaking apart, rocks dissolving and re-precipitating elsewhere, animals extracting ions to build shells

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5
Q

What are the two most common ways sediments can form?

A

Chemically, and clastically

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6
Q

How can sediments form chemically?

A

Minerals precipitate out of a solution

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7
Q

How can they form clastically?

A

Broken pieces of earth materials

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8
Q

What is the difference between physical and chemical weathering?

A

Physical is breaking apart rocks, while chemical alters rocks to create new compounds

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9
Q

Where does weathering happen?

A

In highlands at the source rock

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10
Q

What are the four agents of erosion?

A

Water, air, ice and, gravity

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11
Q

What is likely to carry more sediment?

A

Something which is fastmoving

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12
Q

When can clasts be deposited?

A

A drop in velocity and viscosity

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13
Q

What type of sediment is more likely to stay where they are?

A

Coarser and larger sediment

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14
Q

What is the Hjulstrom Diagram?

A

It predicts the critical velocities of a given grain size and determines where it will be picked up, moved and deposited by flowing water

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15
Q

Why is clay hard to erode?

A

Clay clumps together

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16
Q

What are the three environments sediments are deposited in?

A

Continental, coastal, and marine

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17
Q

Where do sediments tend to gather?

A

In low spots (such as the ocean)

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18
Q

What are some primary sedimentary structures?

A

Graded bedding, symmetrical ripples, asymmetrical ripples

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19
Q

What are primary sedimentary structures?

A

Structures which form at the same time as sedimentary rocks

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20
Q

What are secondary sedimentary structures?

A

Occurs after deposition

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21
Q

What are some examples of secondary sedimentary structures?

A

Mud cracks, bioturbation, soft sediment deformation

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22
Q

What is the process where sediment turns to stone?

A

Lithification

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23
Q

What are the two parts of lithification?

A

Compaction, and cementation

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24
Q

What are the three types of sedimentary rocks?

A

Siliclastic rock, chemical sedimentary rock, and bioclastic rock

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25
Q

How are metamorphic rocks made?

A

Begins with a parent rock (Protolith)

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26
Q

How are protoliths metamorphized?

A

Heating, squeezing, or hot fluids (or a mix of these three)

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27
Q

When is a rock no longer considered to be metamorphic?

A

When it melts

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28
Q

What is hydrothermal metamorphism?

A

When hot fluids are the main agent of metamorphism

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29
Q

What is the difference between lithostatic and directed stress?

A

Lithostatic stress is applied equally to all sides, and directed stress is applied higher in one direction

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30
Q

Does metamorphism affect the composition of the rocks?

A

No, as elements aren’t added nor removed – they are merely rearranged

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31
Q

What is the difference between re-crystallization and neocrystallization?

A

Minerals change size and shape without changing compositions vs using the same minerals, growing new crystals that weren’t present in the protolith

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32
Q

How does foliation form?

A

Dependent on how close a rock is to the collision site, and how much pressure was applied

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33
Q

What are the two ways we can date rocks and fossils?

A

Relative and absolute dating

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34
Q

What are the seven principles of relative dating?

A

Principle of..
- Superposition
- Original Horizontality
- Lateral Community
- Cross-cutting relationship
- Inclusions
- Uniformity
- Faunal Sucession

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35
Q

What is the principle of superposition?

A

Sediment are deposited over time, with oldest being at the bottom, and youngest at the top

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36
Q

What is the principle of original horizontality

A

Sediments are always deposited in horizontal layers

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37
Q

What is the principle of lateral continuity?

A

Because beds are always deposited horizontally, you can trace back unformed layers – even if some of the layer had been eroded away

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38
Q

What is the principle of cross-cutting relationship?

A

A feature which cuts across a rock bed is younger than the rock surrounding it

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39
Q

What is the principle of inclusion?

A

Rock inclusions are older than the host rock surrounding it

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40
Q

What is the principle of uncomformity?

A

An unconformity (erosional surface) are younger than the rocks below

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41
Q

What is an unconformity?

A

Where time is missing from the rock record

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42
Q

What is the principle of fauna succession?

A

The order in which fossils are first and last seen in the rock record

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43
Q

What is the difference between relative and absolute dating?

A

Relative determines a rough timeline, while absolute dating determines exact numerical values

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44
Q

How are radioactive isotopes determined?

A

By measuring half-lives

45
Q

What are the four divisions of the Geological Time Scale? (From oldest to youngest)

A

Eons -> Eras -> Periods -> Epochs

46
Q

When were fossils uncommon?

A

4 million years ago

47
Q

What are fossils?

A

Preserved evidence of ancient life

48
Q

What is a factor which determines if an organism turns into a fossil?

A

How quickly it is buried and protected from scavengers, the elements and decay

49
Q

What are the nine ways to fossilize an organism?

A

1) Freeze them
2) Jerkification
3) Encasement
4) Replacement
5) Permineralization
6) Petrification
7) Recrystallization
8) Carbonization
9) Molds and casts

50
Q

What is an example of jerkification?

A

Mummification

51
Q

What is an example of encasement?

A

Insects getting trapped in amber, animals getting trapped in tar

52
Q

What is replacement?

A

Remains which have been turned to stone, original bone had been dissolved and replaced by a mineral

53
Q

What is permineralization?

A

Filling up pore space in bone with depositing minerals and water

54
Q

What is petrification?

A

Permineralization + replacement

55
Q

What is carbonization?

A

To bury or to squeeze out all water leaving film behind

56
Q

What is the difference between a mold and a cast?

A

Mold: Stamp into a sediment which is then removed
Cast: Fills up mold with other sediments, then mold is removed

57
Q

Which fossilization method leaves remains unaltered?

A

Freezing and mumification (Jerkify)

58
Q

What is the modern definition of evolution?

A

Differential reproductive genes within a population

59
Q

Who was Charles Darwin inspired by?

A

Lyell’s “Principles of Geology”

60
Q

What did both Darwin and Wallace observe?

A

Pattern and Hypothesized Process

61
Q

What is a pattern?

A

Organisms live where they are the best adapted

62
Q

What is the Hypothesized Process?

A

Environmental factors which prevent an organism unsuited from the environment from successfully reproducing

63
Q

How does variation influence natural selection?

A

Variation provides material for natural selection to act upon (Only the best fitted individuals survive)

64
Q

When and where does mutation occur?

A

Randomly inside the DNA

65
Q

What is evolution?

A

A change in gene frequency within populations from generation to generation

66
Q

What does “fitness” describe?

A

Ability to survive, find a mate, and to reproduce

67
Q

What is genetic inertia?

A

More genetic variation (traits take longer to express themselves + more genetic variability)

68
Q

Where is genetic inertia more likely to occur?

A

In larger populations

69
Q

What kind of dangers are smaller populations at risk for?

A

Vulnerable to rapid extinction, less variability, prone to evolving quicker

70
Q

What are analogous structures?

A

Homologous structures that cannot be traced back to a common ancestor

71
Q

What is convergent evolution?

A

Though structures evolved from different ancestors, their functions are the same (Wings)

72
Q

What is the difference between small-scale and large-scale modification?

A

Small-scale occurs in one generation to the next, large-scale occurs in different species from one common ancestor

73
Q

How do we define a species biologically? (Changes can be seen in nature)

A

Members of a group who can breed, and produce offspring

74
Q

How do we define a species morphologically? (Using the rock record)

A

Their morphological similarities (Same bone structure)

75
Q

How do we track biodiversity in the fossil record?

A

Origination and extinction rate

76
Q

What are the five known mass extinction events?

A
  • End Ordovician
  • End Devonian
  • Permo-Triassic
  • End Triassic
  • Cretaceous-Paleogene
77
Q

What is a collection of landforms called?

A

A terrain

78
Q

What is the difference between relief and slopes?

A

The relief is the distance between the highest and lowest points (low, moderate, high) and the slope is the change in elevation (shallow, moderate, steep)

79
Q

What does cooling cause?

A

Decrease in elevation

80
Q

How can subsistence (downward movement) be caused?

A

By stretching the crust (divergence/rifting)

81
Q

What is a load?

A

When downward pressure is applied to the crust

82
Q

What happens when a relief develops?

A

Can be subjected to weathering and erosion

83
Q

What factors control the creation of landforms?

A

Tectonic life forms, volcanic landforms, erosional lifeforms, and depositional landforms

84
Q

What factors can modify landforms?

A

Weathering, erosion and deposition

85
Q

Why is earth not completely flat from weathering and erosion?

A

Uplift and subsidence continuously move rocks up and down

86
Q

What are the six factors which determine how a landform is made?

A

Eroding agent, relief, climate, substrate composition, life activity, and time

87
Q

What is water most used for in Alberta?

A

Energy generation and agriculture

88
Q

What is stream discharge?

A

The volume of water passing through a point in a specific amount of time

89
Q

Between turbulent and laminar, which one is better for transporting sediment?

A

Turbulent flow as chaotic motions promote sheering of larger rocks and mixing of sediments

90
Q

What is a thalweg?

A

A part of the stream with the highest flow velocity

91
Q

What is the difference between a suspending and bed load?

A

Suspending loads are sediments which are carried in the water, bd loads are particles which directly interact with the bed

92
Q

What is a dissolved load?

A

Any sediment which is dissolved in water

93
Q

What is the purpose of the Hjulstrom Diagram?

A

tells the relationship between sediment size and the water’s ability to erode and transport sediments

94
Q

What are the three types of stream channels?

A

Straight, meandering and braided

95
Q

How are Oxbow lakes formed?

A

By meandering cut-offs

96
Q

What are biogenic sediments?

A

Sediments formed through biological activity

97
Q

What are siliclastic sediments made up of?

A

Feldspar, quartz, rock fragments, clay

98
Q

What is a source area?

A

An exposed chunk of rock where sediments form

99
Q

What is in situ?

A

A chemical reaction between air or water with a rock

100
Q

What are two marine depositional environments?

A

Continental shelf and abyssal plain

101
Q

What is the difference between beds and lamination?

A

Beds: >1 cm, lamentation: < 1 cm

102
Q

Where do symmetrical and asymmetrical ripples form?

A

Beaches, rivers and deserts

103
Q

If water is included in metamorphic systems, what happens?

A

The metamorphic process is sped up

104
Q

Hydrothermal fluids often contain dissolved elements rejected from normal silicate minerals that form as magma solidifies. What is an example?

A

Gold

105
Q

What causes foliation in metamorphic rocks?

A

Directed stress

106
Q

What does radiometric dating measure in igneous rocks?

A

The age of crystallization

107
Q

What does radiometric dating measure in sedimentary rocks?

A

The age of the formation minerals in the rock

108
Q

What does radiometric dating measure in metamorphic rocks?

A

The age of metamorphism

Geology 201 (3 decks)

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