Exam 2 Flashcards
What is archaeology?
The study of human cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains and environmental data.
What is paleoanthropology?
The study of origins and predecessors of the present human species.
What is a fossil?
Any mineralized trace or impression of an organism that has been preserved in the earth’s crust from past geological time.
What is an artifact?
Any object made or altered by humans.
What is an ecofact?
Natural remains of plants and animals found in the archaeological recordE.g. shells, pollen, animal bones
How are fossils made?
After death, all organic parts of of bone are consumed by bacteria, and the microscopically porous, inorganic parts of the bone are left behind. Water that percolates through the soil dissolves mineral salts (silica, limestone, iron compounds) fill in the porous areas of the bone, making them increasingly more rock like.
Why are the details of excavations so meticulously recorded?
Because excavation results in the destruction of the site, so the location and context of everything recorded has to be recorded to aid research.
Define Prehistory?
A conventional term used to describe the period of time before written records.
Define material culture?
The durable aspects of culture, such as tools, structures and art.
What is Taphonomy?
The study of how bones and other materials come to be preserved in the earth as fossils. Comes from the Greek word for “tomb.”
Why are fossils often found in caves?
Caves are ideal for fossilization.- Cave clay and rock can contribute to the fossil process- Protects remains from scavengers, wind, rain
Why where the Bog Bodies in Europe preserved?
They were fully submerged in acidic, anaerobic wetlands.
What are the two major divisions in archaeology?
- Prehistoric (or precontact)- Historical archaeology
What is historical archaeology?
Archaeology that has written or oral records to support it’s research.
What are some examples of primary sources that can support historical archaeology?
Sources written at the same time as the period in question.- Diaries- Deeds- photographs- letters- newspaper articles- land records- maps- census records- wills
What are some examples of secondary sources used by historical archaeology?
Historical works assembled from interpreting or presenting primary sources.- books- journals- magazine articles- dissertations
What do you have to keep in mind when using written records?
- Errors- Biases- misrepresentation of populations who did not have written records- eg, most slaves were kept from learning how to read or write- secondary sources involve historical interpretation by authors
What are the two major categories of dating techniques?
- Relative Dating- Chronometric Dating
What is relative dating?
Designates older than or younger than.- stratigraphy- fluorine analysis- seriation
What is chronometric dating?
Calculates yaers before the present with dates expressed as AD, BC, BCE, or BP- radiocarbon- dendochronology- potassium argon, thermoluminescence, fission track
What is stratigraphy?
Dating by means of soil strata-Relative dating - deepest layer is oldest- most recent layer is the newest and laid down last
What is fluorine analysis?
Measures the amount of fluorine in bones- relative dating technique- the older a bone is the more fluorine it will contain becaise of water seepage in the soil- nitrogen levels also drop as time proceeds- soils contain different amounts of fluorine, or none at all, so it can only be used to determine if bones at the same location or older, younger, or the same age as each other
What is seriation?
Sequencing cultural remains into relative chronological order based on stylistic features- relative dating technique- styles of cultural material change through time- recording differences in styles among sites and strata can reveal temporal associations
What is radiocarbon dating?
Carbon-14, C-14 measures the amouint of radioactice carbon left in organic materials- chronometric dating technique- all living organisms absorb carbon- C-14 is radioactive, C-12 is not- at death C-14 decays at a known rate, while C-12 remains stable- that rate is known as a half life- hald-life of C-14 is 5 730 years- the difference between the amount of C-14 and C-12 allows time since death to be calculated- after 50 000 years too little C-14 to measure
What is a half life?
A half life is the amount of time it takes for half the amount of atoms in a sample to decay
What are some of the drawbacks to radiocarbon dating?
- can only be used to date organic objects- can only tell you date the object died, not necessarily when it was used, eg building materials- the more half life cycles pass, the less C-14 there is, and therefore date is less precise and more difficult to determine
What is dendochronology?
Measures time through tree rings- chronometric dating technique- trees grow each year depending how much water they get- different environmental conditions create different size tree rings- master tree ring sequences with known dates are used to get dates for other samples
What is potassium argon dating?
K-Ar, measures the ration of radioactive potassium to argon in volcanic debris- chronometric dating technique- half-life of 1.3 billion years- gives dates of artifacts found in the volcanic ash strata
What is thermoluminescence dating?
Measures the amount of light given off due to radioactivity when a sample is heated to high temperatures- chronometric dating technique- measures back from about 300 000 to 10 000 BP- developed for recent materials (eg Greek pottery)- ground up sample is placed in a special oven, then is rapidly heated to 400-500 degrees C- temperature causes energy emission from sample- the older the object the more light produced (natural radioactivity builds up since the last time the material was heated)
What objects can be dated by thermoluminescence?
Objects that were made with or affected by high heat- hearths- ceramics- fire treated flint- fire treated chert
What is fission track dating?
Measures the tracks left in crystals by uranium as it decays.- chronometric dating technique- can only be used on crystals- as uranium atoms decay they fission, leaving tracks in the crystal- measuring the amount of tracks will tell you how much uranium has decayed- used as a cross-check for K/Ar dates
What is macroevolution?
Evolution on a large scale that produces different species.
When did the first primates appear?
65-55 mya in North America and Eurasia (Joined, but Africa seperate- small arboreal, nocturnal insect eaters
When did monkeys and apes first appear?
-40 mya diurnal anthropoid primates- apes widespread in Africa, Asia, Europe by 23.5 mya
What is micro evolution?
The change in allele frequencies that occurs from one generation to the next
What is macroevolution?
The creation of new species, occuring over hundreds or thousands of generations.
What is gradualism?
- Species can gradually evolve into other species over a long time.
What is punctuated equlibrium?
Evolutionary change that happens quickly after periods of instability.- Can be caused by climatic shifts (volcanic eruptions, droughts, ice ages), changes in food supply and predation changes
What is Anagenesis?
- Sustained, directional shift in a populations average characteristics- Occurs within a single evolutionary line- gene pool continues to change over time for one population- from Greek “ana” up against, back, again and Latin “genesis” creation, beggininng- Speciation is inferred as organisms take on different appearances over time
What were the plesiadapiformes?
- the first primate-like mammals
- started appearing
- 65 mya- roughly similair in size and appearance to squirrels and tree shrews
- the (very fragmentary) fossil record suggests they were adapted to an arboreal way of life in warm, moist climates
What is cladogenesis?
- speciation through a branching mechanism whereby an ancestral popilations hgives rise to two or more descendant populations- occurs as differnent populations become reproductively isolated
When do the earliest mammals start appearing?
190 mya