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A&P Lecture 302 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two categories of pain and what type of nerve fibers are associated with each?

A 
1st and 2nd pain (chronic pain)
First pain (fast pain) utilize Type A fibers 
Second pain (chronic, slow pain) utilize type C fibers
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2
Q

Where do primary sensory nociceptors synapse?

A

Primary sensory nociceptors arrive in the spinal cord and synapse in the grey matter

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3
Q

Which pathways do the pain pathways utilize and do they ascend ipsilaterally or contralaterally?

A

They utilize anterolateral (ascending) tracts and ascend contralaterally

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4
Q

What is sensory transduction?

A

it is the mechanism by which physical changes are transformed into internal biochemical/ electrical signals

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5
Q

Describe transduction within a nociceptor

A

In fast or slow pain the pain signal is polymodal and is transmitted by free (unencapsulated) nerve endings (dendrites). Cutting, pressure, extreme temps, can activate TRP channels associated with pain receptors

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6
Q

What neurotransmitter is released by first order nociceptive sensory neurons? What chemical category of NT is it and is it an EPSP or IPSP?

A

Primary sensory nociceptors secrete the neuropeptide substance P - this is a neuropeptide and an EPSP

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7
Q

What integrative brain structure modulates the perception of pain?

A

the reticular formation

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8
Q

What is a specific example of a nervous structure that utilizes pre synaptic inhibition + what NT are utilized here?

A

Descending pathways of the reticulospinal tract utilize pre-synaptic inhibition and enkephalins as the NT. These are a class of neuropeptides that accomplish this inhibition

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9
Q

Is an administered drug considered exogenous or endogenous?

A

exogenous (from outside) are opioids such as morphine

endogenous (internally produced)

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10
Q

Define hyperalgesia + algesia

A

Hyperalgesia - indicates a heightened perception of pain due to increased sensitivity of the primary sensory neuron

algeisa - meaning a lack of or decrease in pain

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11
Q

What is a visceral dermatome?

A

it is an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single nerve. Each of these nerves relay sensation from a particular region of skin to the brain

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12
Q

What process releases prostaglandin and bradykinin?

A

inflammatory processes release a complex mix of chemical mediators (“inflammatory soup”)

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13
Q

What is the stimulus for bradykinin?

A

bradykinin is associated with “slow pain” and affects pain receptors by directly open TRP channels.

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14
Q

What are enkephalins?

A

they are a class of endogenous (internally produced) opoiods that produce a decreased sense of pain (analgesia). They cause IPSPs.

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15
Q

What class of drugs emulates the central pain adaptation produced by enkephalins?

A

exogenous opioids such as morphine

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16
Q

What is an example of other endogenous analgesics?

A

endorphins, dynorphins and endocannabinoids

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17
Q

What does the COX enzyme do and how do NSAIDs affect this enzyme?

A

It produces prostaglandins when inflammation and NSAIDs inhibit the COX enzyme and prevent hyperalgesia (heightened sense of pain) by reducing prostaglandin formation and reducing pain.

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18
Q

Is pain within the viscera consciously perceived?

A

No, viscera pain pathways converge with somesthetic pain pathways therefore pain within a visceral organ is perceived as pain within the skin.

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19
Q

What is the general purpose of the orbit + adipose tissue within?

A

the purpose of the orbit and fatty padding within is protection

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20
Q

Which cranial nerve innervates the iris smooth muscle and the ciliary smooth muscle?

A

the oculomotor nerve innervates both the iris and ciliary smooth muscle. the oculomotor nerve also innervates 5 of the extrinsic eye muscles

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21
Q

What is the collective function of the lacrimal gland and conjunctivae?

A

secretions of the lacrimal gland and conjunctivae coat and protect the eye

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22
Q

What is corneal reflex triggered by?

A

it is triggered by touch to the cornea. This sensation is transmitted via the ophthalmic branch (trigeminal nerve) to the nuclei of the pons where the reflex is integrated (afferent signal). Triggering of this reflex causes a rapid blink via motor output that travels thru the facial nerve (efferent signal)

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23
Q

Where is the sclera thickest and why is it white?

A

it is thickest in the back where the exit of the optic nerve decreases and it is white because it avascular (lacks blood vessels)

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24
Q

Why is the cornea avascular and how are its oxygen and nutrient needs met?

A

it is avascular so the eye is clear for vision and oxygen and nutrients are obtained via the aqueous humor.

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25
Q

What supplies blood to the outer and inner layers of the retina?

A

the choroid portion of the vascular tunic supplies blood to the external layers of the retina closest to the photoreceptors. the inner layers are supplied blood via a central retinal artery

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26
Q

Describe the cause and effect of the pupillary reflex. Which part of the brain integrates the pupillary reflex?

A

the pupillary reflex is where bright light in one eye is integrated by nuclei within the prectectum of the midbrain causing constriction of the iris via the oculomotor nerve

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27
Q

What is a typical intraocular pressure and how do low or high pressures affect vision and why?

A

typical intraocular pressure is 16 mmHg. Increases or decreases in pressure affect the shape of the eye and result in an inability to focus properly. The rate of circulation of aqueous humor is such that the entire volume turns over approximately every 90 minutes.

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28
Q

What is a keratoplasty?

A

corneal transplantation

29
Q

How would blockage of the scleral sinus affect intraocular pressure?

A

a blocked sclera sinus would affect intraocular pressure by increasing it due to lack of drainage by the scleral system

30
Q

What are the two purposes of the pigmented epithelium?

A

the dark pigmented epithelium behind the retina absorbs light after it strikes the photoreceptors and prevents reflective scattering which might stimulate a photoreceptor a second time

31
Q

Approx. how many photoreceptors are found in both eyes? bipolar neurons? ganglionic neurons?

A

there are approx 136 million photoreceptors per eye. there are 6 million bipolar cells and 1 million ganglion cells. There is a great deal of convergence (bigger to smaller) in the eye.

32
Q

Which cells mediate information between the photoreceptors and bipolar cells?

A

horizontal cells

33
Q

which cells mediate integration between the bipolar and ganglion cells?

A

amacrine

34
Q

Where in the retina are only cones found and where are rods at the highest density?

A

the fovea is the area of highest visual acuity and this is the only place where cones are found. Rods are concentrated at the peripheral portion of the retina

35
Q

What are the light sensitive molecules in photoreceptors called? How does light striking that molecule affect it?

A

photoreceptors contain photopigments which are the chromophore molecules - light sensitive molecules. When light strikes these molecules rhodopsin breaks down to form separate retinal and opsin molecules

36
Q

What part of the photoreceptor differs most between red and blue cones?

A

there is a unique isoform of opsin, a protein, in each type of photoreceptor due to differential gene expression.

37
Q

Which has a higher threshold of light necessary to cause action potentials in the optic nerve: rods or cones?

A

Cones have a higher threshold stimulus and are much more effective at high light levels

38
Q

Does cGMP increase or decrease in a photoreceptor when suddenly exposed to light?

A

when a photoreceptor is exposed to light there is an increase in cGMP. Dark is the stimulus in a photoreceptor since it causes a decrease in opsin = increased concentrations of cGMP.

39
Q

What is the effect of high levels of cGMP in a photoreceptor?

A

increases in cGMP open sodium ion channels which allow sodium entry and depolarization and release of the NT glutamate.

40
Q

When is glutamate secretion maximal?

A

In the dark which causes inhibition of bipolar neurons due to glutamate causing IPSPs and hyperpolarization

41
Q

Is the AP frequency in ganglionic neurons higher in the dark or the light?

A

The AP frequency in ganglionic neurons is higher in the light. The AP frequency for photoreceptors is higher in the dark.

42
Q

Which “encephalon” does the optic tract first go to? What specific nucleus?

A

The diencephalon (specifically the thalamus). The axons of ganglion cells that make up the optic nerve and tract that cross at the optic chiasm eventually synapse on the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus.

43
Q

What lobe of the telencephalon receives primary visual information?

A

cerebral cortex

44
Q

Besides the cerebrum where else does visual information go?

A

the pretectum, superior colliculi, hypothalamus, cerebellum

45
Q

Which region of the mesencephalon is responsible for integration of the pupillary reflex?

A

pretectum

46
Q

How is the hypothalamus related to integration of visual information?

A

the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the thalamus communicates with the pineal gland which is where circadian rhythms are regulated. Circadian rhythms are affected by light

47
Q

What is cortical blindness?

A

it is diminished to absent conscious vision. This may be completely independent of the function of the eye itself (i.e. the pathways are intact)

48
Q

Is accomodation a function of the cornea? Is refraction a necessary function of the cornea?

A

accomodation is a function of the lens. Emmetropia (focus on faraway objects) = requires an inhibited/relaxed flattened lens due to and accomodation (focus on near objects) = stimulated/contracted ciliary muscle allows the lens to take on its default, round state

49
Q

What are zonular fibers?

A

suspensory ligaments that attach the capsule to the ciliary body

50
Q

How does relaxation of the ciliary muscle affect the shape of the lens?

A

the relaxed ciliary muscle allows the zonular fibers to exert tension on the lens = flattened lens

the stimulated/contracted ciliary muscle = relief of tension = round lens shape (default)

51
Q

When something is in your left field of vision, what hemisphere of the cerebrum receives that image?

A

the left field of vision is perceived by the right brain. it is NOT the case that our right eye projects to our left brain

52
Q

Is the projection of the medial retina ipsilateral or contralateral?

A

the projection of the medial retina is ipsilateral. the projection of the lateral retina is contralateral.

53
Q

What tube connects the throat to the middle ear and what is the purpose?

A

the auditory tube is a tube that connects from the air-filled middle ear and the pharynx within the throat. It is necessary because air compresses and expands under various changes of barometric pressure and temperature.

54
Q

When ascending in a hot air balloon: how does pressure change? How does volume change?

A

Pressure decreases with increasing altitude. This can cause the volume of air within the ear to become larger and without allowing some to exit can cause painful expansion of the cavity outward.

55
Q

What is otitis media?

A

Otitis media is a condition of inflammation within the middle ear. It can cause swelling and air bubbles within the ear which causes a lot of pain.

56
Q

What are the two skeletal muscles associated with the middle ear/ what are the names of the 2 smallest synovial joints?

A

the tensor tympani and stapedius muscle and the malleus + incus and incus + stapes

57
Q

What is the acoustic reflex?

A

It is a brainstem reflex that contracts the stapedius muscle in response to a loud sound in order to pull the stapes away from the oval window and prevent damage to the hair cells within the cochlea

58
Q

What are the cranial nerves involved in the acoustic reflex and where is it integrated?

A

It involves the vestibulocochlear nerve (afferent) and the facial nerve (efferent) and the reflex is integrated in the superior olivary nucleus found on the border of the pons and medulla oblongata.

59
Q

What is the normal spectrum of human hearing in a young person in Hz? Also if high frequency hearing decreases with age what end of this spectrum is affected?

A

The healthy young human ear receives pitches of sound ranging in frequency from 20-20,00 Hz (highest pitch). High frequency hearing decreases with age therefore high pitch is harder to hear as one ages.

60
Q

When a cochlear or vestibular hair cell is bent, how does transduction then occur?

A

vibration of any portion of the basilar membrane causes the hair cells resting within the spiral organ directly above that portion to be “pushed” into the tectorial membrane. This bending of the microvilli of the hair cells causes opening of potassium ion channels and subsequent depolarization.

61
Q

How is a high pitch differentiated from a low pitch relative to the cochlea?

A

the perception of pitch is determined by what part of the cochlea is stimulated. The thicker proximal portion vibrates in response to higher frequencies and the distal portion vibrates in response to the lowest frequencies of sound waves.

62
Q

Accommodation to view close up objects requires _____ of the ciliary muscle. This causes the suspensory ligaments to ______ their tension on the lens

A

contraction/decrease

63
Q

What are the two primary inputs for motor coordination in the cerebellum?

A

equilibrium and proprioception

64
Q

When your alarm clock wakes you up at 5am to study A and P what part of your brain should you blame most for waking you up?

A

The cerebellum since sound is integrated there as is proprioception, equilibrium and vision. The are also projections to the reticular formation (sound can play a role in one’s wakefulness)

65
Q

What do the semicircular canals detect, rotational velocity or rotational acceleration?

A

rotational acceleration

66
Q

What specific part of the vestibular apparatus detects sudden movement upward in an elevator?

A

acceleration upwards in an elevator (while standing) will cause down bending of the saccule hair cells.

67
Q

When sitting upright in a moving automobile moving straight and at a constant speed, which part of the vestibular apparatus would have the greatest frequency on action potentials?

A

linear acceleration, such as accelerating in a car causes backward bending of the hair cells of the utricle (when sitting) although they will resume an upward direction when the velocity of the car becomes constant

68
Q

What are the primary targets of the vestibular pathways in the brain?

A

bipolar cells synapse upon the vestibular nuclei on the border of the pons and medulla oblongata. from here divergence targets the primary equilibrium cortex, AKA vestibular cortex of the cerebrum as well as the cerebellum

69
Q

Describe the properties and location of the olfactory epithelium

A

it is housed inside the nasal cavities within a small patch of nasal mucosa. Olfactory receptor neurons communicate between the nasal cavity and pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and synapse onto the olfactory bulb. The olfactory epithelium is lined by a seromucous coating and the olfactory hairs are the receptors that are used to detect the odorants.

A&P Lecture 302 (1 decks)

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