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Neurobiology for Majors > Exam 2 TA Deck > Flashcards

Exam 2 TA Deck Flashcards

1
Q

Light displays properties of ____ and a _____

A

wave/particle

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2
Q

Light is composed of discrete units called _____

A

photons

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3
Q

In BRIGHT light, there are (more/less) _____

A

more photons

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4
Q

In DIM light, there are (more/less) ____

A

less photons

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5
Q

What is refraction

A

When light hits a surface, it can bend

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6
Q

What is the energy equation for light?

A

E=frequency/wavelength
E=h/λ

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7
Q

If energy is high, ____ will be (higher/lower) and ____ will be (longer/shorter)

A

frequency will be higher
wavelength will be shorter

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8
Q

Shorter wavelength = (higher/lower) ____
Higher wavelength = (higher/lower) ____

A

higher freq.
lower freq.

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9
Q

What is phototransduction?

A

The conversion of light into electrochemical stimuli/energy

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10
Q

How is the external world represented when it reaches to fovea?

A

upside down after being refracted and reaching the fovea

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11
Q

What can be used to fix refractive errors (nearsighted/farsighted) of the eye?

A

glasses and contact lenses

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12
Q

What does laminar mean?

A

layered

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13
Q

What are the two main outer layer components of the eye?

A

cornea and sclera

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14
Q

What is the function of the two main outer layer components of the eye?

A

structure and protection and to refract light (cornea)

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15
Q

What is the main middle layer component of the eye?

A

choroid

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16
Q

What is the function of the main middle layer component of the eye?

A

main vascular layer that provides blood supply

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17
Q

What is the main inner layer component of the eye?

A

Retina

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18
Q

What is the function of the main inner layer component of the eye?

A

phototransduction

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19
Q

Look at the TA Exam 2 questions (#19 specifically) and label the parts of the eye

A

A. cornea
B. iris
C. pupil
D. aqueous humor
E. ciliary muscle
F. lens
G. zonule fibers
H. vitreous humor
I. optic disk
J. optic nerve
K. fovea
L. sclera
M. retina
N. choroid

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20
Q

Where is the aqueous humor produced? What is its function?

A

ciliary body
provide nutritive support to cornea

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21
Q

What is the function of the vitreous humor?

A

Makes up most of the volume of the eye

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22
Q

What is the function of the cornea?

A

protect the eye
refract light onto retina

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23
Q

What is the function of the lens?

A

refract light
refraction based on distance (accommodation)

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24
Q

What is the function of the ciliary muscle? What is connected to the ciliary muscle?

A

control shape of the lens via zonule fibers

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25
Q

What is the function of the iris?

A

sphinctor and dilator muscles to control size of pupil

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26
Q

What is the function of the pupil?

A

hole for light to enter in

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27
Q

What is accommodation in the eye?

A

process of the lens focusing on close objects

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28
Q

Describe the shape of the lens at baseline (focusing on far objects)

A

lens is flattened

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29
Q

Describe the shape of the lens when it is accommodated.

A

lens is rounded

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30
Q

When the lens is at baseline, ciliary muscle (contracts/relaxes) and zonule fibers are (tight/relaxed).

A

relaxes/tight

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31
Q

When the lens is accommodated, ciliary muscle (contracts/relaxes) and zonule fibers are (tight/relaxed).

A

contracts/relaxed

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32
Q

Which cranial nerve is important for accommodation?

A

oculomotor nerve (CNIII)

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33
Q

What is the function of the sclera?

A

shape and protection

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34
Q

What is the function of the retina?
a) What is the point of highest visual acuity in the eye? Why is the point of highest visual
acuity? Is it vascular or avascular?
b) What is the point of lowest visual acuity in the eye? Why is the point of lowest visual
acuity?

A

phototransduction
a) fovea due to ratio of cones with bipolar cells (1:1) and no ganglion cells to block light. it is avascular
b) optic disk: the region where axons from retinal ganglion cells join to leave the eye as the optic nerve (CNII). there are no photoreceptors at the optic disk

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35
Q

What is the fundus? How can it be visualized?

A

surface of the retina using a fundoscope

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36
Q

Explain/draw the laminar structure of the retina.

A

Light stimuli –> photoreceptor cells –> bipolar cells –> RGCs –> project APs down axons –> optic nerve

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37
Q

What happens at photoreceptor cells?

A

phototransduction

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38
Q

a) Which cells generate action potentials in the retina?
b) Which cells exhibit grades postsynaptic potentials?

A

a) retinal ganglion cells
b) photoreceptor and bipolar cells

39
Q

What are the differences between rods and cones (4 factors)?

A
  1. rods detect light/cones detect color
  2. rods are located in higher concentrations peripherally in the retina/cones are located in higher concentrations at the fovea
  3. structural differences
  4. cones used in high luminance/rods used in low luminance
40
Q

What opsin can be found in a) rods and b) cones?

A

a) rhodopsin
b) red, blue, green opsin

41
Q

What differs in the connections between BP cells and rods versus BP cells and cones?

A

Many rods will synapse onto 1 BP cell / 1:1 ratio of BP cells and cones

42
Q

In the dark, a photoreceptor cell is (depolarized/hyperpolarized) and ____ release is (high/low).

A

depolarized and glutamate release is high

43
Q

In the light, a photoreceptor cell is (depolarized/hyperpolarized) and ____ release is (high/low).

A

hyperpolarized and glutamate release is low

44
Q

When light is presented, ON-center cells (increase/decrease) their firing, while OFF-center (increase/decrease) their firing.

A

increase/decrease

45
Q

In the dark, ON-center cells (increase/decrease) their firing rate, while OFF-center cells (increase/decrease) their firing)

A

decrease/increase

46
Q

What will glutamate do to OFF-center BP cells? Why?

A

activated due to Na+ influx and depolarization

47
Q

What will glutamate do to ON-center BP? Why?

A

inhibited (express mGluR6)

48
Q

Explain/draw what happens when light stimuli reach a rod cell.

A

1) Light will reach a photoreceptor cell (rod).
2) Rhodopsin protein in the rod contains retinal photopigment that will undergo a cis to trans conversion to activate transducin.
3) Transducin is a heteroimeric G-protein that will release its alpha subunit and activates cGMP phosphodiesterase (PDE).
4) Decreased cGMP will cause decreased influx of Na+ and Ca2+ through cGMP gated channels.
5) This will hyperpolarize the rod and lead to a decreased influx of Ca2+ through voltage gated Ca2+ channels to decrease glutamate release from rod.

49
Q

The overall function of the eye is to focus light onto the retina and transmit that signal to the brain. To achieve this, the eye must… (3 factors)

A

1) contain transparent structures
2) must focus light onto the retina
3) phototransduction

50
Q

What is caused by an opaque lens?

A

cataracts

51
Q

What is caused by vascularization of the macula (wet form) or drusen deposits on the macula (dry form)?

A

macular degeneration

52
Q

Describe the general visual pathway.

A

eye –> thalamus (LGN) –> primary visual cortex (occipital lobe)

53
Q

What structures do retinal ganglion cells project to (4 pathways)?

A

1) thalamus (LGN)
2) hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic nucleus)
3) midbrain (pretectal area)
4) midbrain (superior colliculus)

54
Q

Explain (and/or draw) how the visual pathway will interpret a stimulus on the right side. Include binocular/monocular portions, which hemiretina stimulus would strike retina on each eye, and synapses (decussation)

A

left eye would be hit on the temporal hemiretina while the right eye would be hit on the nasal hemiretina

55
Q

What happens when the optic nerve is damaged?

A

ipsilateral peripheral visual field loss on side where optic nerve is damaged

56
Q

What happens when the optic chiasm is damaged?

A

peripheral visual field loss on both sides

57
Q

What is the function of the optic nerve (CNII)?

A

visual perception
visual reflexes and eye movement
modulation of pupil size
sleep cycle modulation

58
Q

What is the function of the oculomotor nerve (CNIII)?

A

controls accommodation
controls muscles of iris
controls gaze

59
Q

What is retinotopy?

A

specific parts of the visual field are represented in specific parts of the retina and brain

60
Q

What are the outer parts of the ear (3 structures)? What is their function?

A
  • pinna
  • external auditory canal
  • tympanic membrane
    collect soundwaves
61
Q

What are the middle parts of the ear (4 structures)? What is their function?

A
  • eustachian tube
  • malleus
  • incus
  • stapes
    amplify/transmit signal to inner ear
62
Q

What structure borders the middle and inner ear? What is its function?

A

oval window
stapes hits it and then it vibrates basilar membrane in the cochlea

63
Q

What are the inner parts of the ear (2 structures)? What is their function?

A
  • cochlea
  • vestibule
    mechanotransduction: convert soundwaves into electrochemical signals
64
Q

What two muscles are part of the attenuation reflex? What cranial nerves innervate each?

A

tensor tympani –> trigeminal nerve (CNV)
stapedius muscle –> facial nerve (CNVII)

65
Q

The cochlea is made up of 3 chambers. What is the chamber that contains the basilar and tectorial membrane? What is the fluid in this chamber? What ion is in high concentration?

A

scala media / endolymph/ K+ ions

66
Q

What is the function of the vestibule?

A

hair cells to detect changes in head angle, movement, and acceleration

67
Q

Explain (and/or draw) the process of mechanotransduction in the cochlea.

A

hair cells are anchored in the basilar membrane, stereocilia and kinocilia on hair cells are anchored in the tectorial membrane
movement of fluid and cochlea vibrates basilar membrane
that bends stereo and kinocilia
the bending of s. cilia towards k. cilia opens mech. gated K+ channels allowing influx of K+
cell becomes depolarized and allows Ca2+ influx
increase glu release as a result

68
Q

Describe the general auditory pathway.

A

ear –> thalamus (MGN) –> primary auditory cortex (temporal lobe)

69
Q

What is tonotopy

A

specific sound freqs are represented in specific locations of the brain

70
Q

What is the function of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CNVIII)?

A

help transmit signaling based on auditory stimuli and head movements/angle

71
Q

What are the functions of the trigeminal nerve (CNV) and the facial nerve (CNVII) in
relation to the auditory lecture?

A

attenuation reflex
trigeminal nerve (CNV) –> tensor tympani muscle
facial nerve (CNVII) –> stapedius muscle

72
Q

Explain the differences between special senses and somatosensation.

A
73
Q

What is the general pathway for somatosensation?

A

skin –> thalamus (VPL = body; VPM = face) –> primary somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe)

74
Q

What is proprioception?

A

position of head and body in space

75
Q

Where do the 2 pathways for proprioception end? (conscious v. unconscious)

A

conscious = primary somatosensory cortex
unconscious = cerebellum

76
Q

What is nociception?

A

pain/temp

77
Q

What is exteroception?

A

sense of direct interaction

78
Q

What is interoception?

A

sense associated with organs

79
Q

Where is grey matter found in the spinal cord?

A

inside (dorsal/ventral horns)

80
Q

Where is white matter found in the spinal cord? What does it contain?

A

outside of the horns
contains myelinated tracts that ascend (sensory) and descend (motor)

81
Q

Explain afferent v. efferent pathways in the spinal cord.

A

afferent carries info to CNS
efferent carries info from CNS to body

82
Q

What is a dermatome and why is it useful?

A

maps out specific region of the body that corresponds to a specific spinal cord segment

83
Q

Order the fiber types from largest to smallest.

A

1a, 1b, A-beta, A-delta, c-fibers

84
Q

Which fiber types are myelinated?

A

all but c-fibers

85
Q

What type of information is carried by each? From where?

A

1a) muscle stretch from muscle spindle
1b) info of force of muscle contraction from the golgi tendon organ
A-beta) info from mechanoreceptors to skin and joints
A-delta) fine discrimination of pain from nerve ending
c-fibers: coarse pain info from nerve ending

86
Q

What is the word for sharp, localized pain? Which fiber type carries information on this
type of pain?

A

epicritic/a-delta

87
Q

What is the word for dull burning pain? Which fiber type carries information on this type
of pain?

A

protopathic /c-fiber

88
Q

Where to all somatosensory pathways begin?

A

DRG

89
Q

Explain (and/or draw) the dorsal spinocerebellar pathway. What types of somatosensory information are carried through this pathway?

A
90
Q

Explain (and/or draw) the dorsal column pathway. What types of somatosensory information are carried through this pathway?

A
91
Q

Explain (and/or draw) the anterolateral pathway. What types of somatosensory information are carried through this pathway?

A
92
Q

What is somatotopy?

A

Different parts of the body will map out to particular parts of the primary somatosensory cortex

93
Q

How does the trigeminal nerve (CNV) correspond to somatosensation?

A

Carries somatosensory information from the face

Neurobiology for Majors (2 decks)

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