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NFS 043 > Exam 3 Notes > Flashcards

Exam 3 Notes Flashcards

1
Q

what are major minerals

A

present in larger quantities in the body than trace minerals, and are needed in larger amounts from the diet

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2
Q

what are the 7 major minerals

A 
calcium
chloride
magnesium
phosphorus
sodium
potassium
sulfate
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3
Q

calcium

A

Ca2+
the most abundant mineral in the body
nearly 99& of the body’s calcium stored in bones and teeth

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4
Q

chloride

A

Cl-
the major negative ion of the body for fluid balance, acid- base balance, and electrolyte balance
stomach acidity Hal
Accompanies sodium making salt the principal food source of chloride
no known diet that lacks chloride

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5
Q

magnesium

A 
~1 ounce present in the body
adults require ~300-400mg/day
>50% present in bone
most of the rest of the magnesium is found in the muscles, heart, liver, and other soft tissues
~1% in body fluids
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6
Q

phosphorus

A

second most abundant mineral in the body
>80% if the body’s phosphorus is combined with calcium in the crystals of the bones and teeth
the rest is everywhere else

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7
Q

sodium

A

Na+

40% of table salt (NaCl: sodium chloride)

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8
Q

potassium

A

fluid and electrolyte balance
cell integrity
nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction
homeostasis: relatively stable equilibrium and maintains steady heart beat

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9
Q

sulfate

A

oxidized form of sulfur as it appears in food and water
necessary for synthesis of sulfur-containing compounds in the body: such as sulfur-containing amino acid, cysteine, skin/hair/nails, oagurt.
no DRI. Deficiencies are unknown
excess from drinking water leads to diarrhea and can damage the colon

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10
Q

roles of calcium in bones and teeth

A

structure: the matrix of bone
storage: a bank of calcium to replenish blood calcium when concentration dips, calcium in bones is not inert, formation and dissolution takes place daily, and almost the entire adult skeleton is remodeled every 10 years

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11
Q

calcium in bone and teeth formation

A

calcium and phosphorus=hydroxyapatite
hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate salt) crystallizes on a rubbery foundation composed collagen: infiltrates the collagen and gradually lends more rigidity to bone.
hydroxyapatite=the chief crystal of bone

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12
Q

the 1 percent

A

calcium in body fluids that bathe and fill cells
Ca2+: electrically charges, regulates the transport of ions across cell membranes, nerve transmission, allows secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes, and neurotransmitters, and activates cellular enzymes that regulate many processes
muscle contraction: actin an dmyson, and heart beat
blood clotting: vitamin k and fibrinogen

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13
Q

calcium balance

A

kidneys decrease calcium loss in urine
intestines increases absorption of calcium
bone releases more calcium into the blood
inadequate calcium intake leads to decreased bone density

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14
Q

calcium absorption

A

normal adult: 25-30% of calcium consumes
if pregnant, breastfeeding, a child in puberty, or deprived the calcium percent consumed is increased.
if there is an abundant amount of calcium the calcium percent consumed is decreased

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15
Q

bone loss

A

osteoporosis is a reduction of the bone mass of older persons in which the bones become more porous and fragile

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16
Q

peak bone mass

A

from birth to about age 20, the bones are actively growing. between the ages of 12 to 30 years, the bones achieve their maximum mineral density for life-the peak bone mass. beyond those years, bone resorption exceeds bone formation, and bones lose density.

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17
Q

osteoporosis

A

a disease of childhood and adolescence that is realized in adulthood

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18
Q

achieving peak bone mass

A 
calcium
phosphorus
magnesium
protein
vitamins A,D,K, and C
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19
Q

what occurs when calcium in the blood is low

A

the parathyroid hormone is released and raises the blood calcium levels (this acts as a feedback loop-when there is enough calcium the parathyroid hormone will stop)

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20
Q

magnesium balance

A

kidneys will decrease magnesium loss in urine

bones will release more magnesium into the blood

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21
Q

roles of magnesium in the body

A

works with calcium
muscle function: calcium helps muscles contract and magnesium helps muscles relax
tooth structure: magnesium holds calcium in tooth enamel and promotes resistance to tooth decay
metabolism of potassium, calcium, and vitamin D
critical to normal heart function
necessary for energy release and use from macronutrients
assists in enzymatic and cellular functions

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22
Q

magnesium deficiency

A

symptoms: low-blood calcium levels, muscle cramps, and seizures
outcomes: disturbed bone metabolism, inflammation, increased risk of stroke, and sudden death by heart attack (in otherwise healthy people)
uncommon: occurring in those with GI disorders, alcoholism, type 2 diabetes or older adults

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23
Q

magnesium toxicity

A

rare, but fatal
occurs from high intakes of non-food sources
children: medicine cabinet
older adults: too many magnesium-containing laxatives, antacids, and other medications
symptoms:diarrhea, acid-base imbalance, and dehydration

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24
Q

roles of phosphorus in the body

A

phosphorous salts are buffers: acid-base balance
phosphorus is part of DNA and RNA: essential for growth and renewal of tissues
carry, store, and release energy in the metabolism of macronutrients
assist in enzymes and vitamins in extracting energy from nutrients
part of phospholipids
present in some proteins

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25
Q

sodium in the body

A

major role in fluid and electrolyte balance: chief ion used to maintain extracellular fluid balance
helps maintain acid-base balance
essential to muscle contraction and nerve transmission

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26
Q

sodium deficiency

A

no known diet lacks sodium
body freely absorbs sodium
regulation by the kidney: filter excess sodium out in urine, can conserve and return sodium to bloodstream in times of low intake
small losses in sweat

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27
Q

hyponatremia

A

decreased blood sodium concentration: sweat, excess water intake, vomiting, diarrhea
cells begin to swell: nausea and vomiting, headache, confusion, loss of energy/fatigue, restlessness and irritability, muscle weakness/spasms/cramps, seizures, and coma

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28
Q

salt and water

A 
water decreases
blood sodium increases
thirst increases
water intake increases
blood sodium decreases
thirst decreases: excess water and salt is eliminated by the kidneys
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29
Q

water weight:

A

water follows salt

control salt intake, and drink MORE (not less) water

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30
Q

sodium recommendations and intakes

A

DRI=14,000-15,000mg per day

grossly over consuming sodium today: approx 36,000mg per day

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31
Q

high blood pressure

A

high blood pressure is correlated to excess sodium consumption
1/3 of all US adults have hypertension
42% among African American adults
normal: 120/80
DASH: Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension: low sodium, high fruit/vegetable diet, includes low-fat dairy as well

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32
Q

potassium nerve impulse

A

the transmission of a nerve impulse is rapid and self-propagating (like dominoes)
the major players: sodium ions (Na+) usually found outside the cell, potassium ions (K+) usually found inside the cell, sodium protein channels in the cell membrane, and potassium protein channels in the cell membrane

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33
Q

potassium deficiency

A

97% of Americans do not meet the DRI for potassium
DGA nutrients of public health concern
increased risk for high blood pressure and death from stroke
adequate potassium intake associated with decreased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke

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34
Q

severe potassium deficiency is rare

A

sudden deaths associated with: dehydration, fasting, eating disorders, and sever malnutrition

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35
Q

what are trace minerals

A

minuscule amounts are required but necessary for health and life
no trace minerals for which there are DRis

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36
Q

iodine

A

iodine in food is converted to iodide in the body
part of the hormone, thyroxine, made by the thyroid gland: metabolic rate, temperature, reproduction, growth, and heart function
thyroxine cannot be synthesized without iodide

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37
Q

iron

A

every living cell, plant or animal, contains iron
in the human body, iron is a component of two proteins: hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells (1 hemoglobin protein contains 4 iron cells)

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38
Q

iodine deficiency

A

goiter: thyroid gland enlarges to trap as much iodine as possible
people with this deficiency may: feel cold, be tired, forget things, and gain weight

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39
Q

cretinism

A

caused by maternal hypothyroidism
symptoms: intellectual disability, stunted growth
treatment for hypothyroidism must be within first 6 months of pregnancy

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40
Q

toxic and simple goiter look

A

exactly the same!

the only differences can be seen in bloodwork and symptoms

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41
Q

sources of iodine

A

iodized salt

dairy products

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42
Q

oxygen in blood and muscles

A 
inhaled oxygen (O2) enters the bloodstream
oxygen leaves the blood and enters the tissue (CO2 and H2O are waste products, without adequate hemoglobin you won't have adequate oxygen transport)
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43
Q

roles of iron

A

carry oxygen to blood and tissues
enzyme function: energy metabolism
synthesis: cells, amino acids, hormones, and neurotransmitters

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44
Q

where does the iron in our bone marrow go

A

iron in bone marrow goes to the liver which produces red blood cells (RBCs life=4 months (~120 days)), and once their life cycle is done they go to the spleen and get repackaged to make more bone marrow

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45
Q

iron storage

A

ferritin: protein that stores iron, releases it in a controlled fashion, and free iron is toxic
apoferritin: ferritin without iron bound to it

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46
Q

iron release

A

10-15% of dietary iron is absorbed
hepcidin, a hormone released from the liver, helps regulate blood iron concentrations by limiting absorption from small intestines and controlling release from body sotres

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47
Q

what happens when blood iron concentration is increased

A

blood iron concentration raises, hepcidin raises, iron absorption and iron release are lowered

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48
Q

what happens when blood iron concentration is decreased

A

blood iron concentration is lowered, hepcidin lowers, iron absorption and iron release is increased

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49
Q

food that affects iron absorption

A

heme iron-contained in hemoglobin and myoglobin
(heme iron is absorbed at about 23%)
non-heme iron is contained in plants (and meats) (non-heme iron is absorbed at about 2-20%)
factors that increase absorption of non-heme iron (MFP factor in meat promotes absorption and vitamin C (triples absorption if eaten in same meal))

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50
Q

iron inhibitors

A

tannins in tea and coffee
calcium and phosphorus in milk
phytates from fiber in lightly processed legumes and whole-grain cereals

51
Q

iron loss

A 
minute loss (digestive tract, nail and hair trimmings, and shed skin)
significant loss (bleeding)
52
Q

iron deficiency

A

inadequate dietary iron
iron loss
iron deficiency anemia “too little blood”
too little hemoglobin–>too little oxygen to blood and tissues–>decreased energy metabolism in the cell–>fatigue, apathy, and tendency to feel cold

53
Q

pica

A

craving and intentional consumption of nonfood substances: ice, chalk, clay, and soil

54
Q

at-risk populations for iron deficiency

A

women of childbearing age, pregnant women, infants and toddlers, and adolescents and females

55
Q

iron toxicity

A

iron, in excess, is toxic to tissues because it can cause oxidative stress
once absorbed, difficult to excrete
intestinal cells trap excess iron and hold it within their boundaries (promotes colon and rectal cancer)
healthy people protected by hepcidin pathway (blood iron concentration raises, hepcidin raises, iron absorption iron release lowers)
genetic failure of this system can impede hormonal control (caucasian men)
symptoms: fatigue, mental depression, and abdominal pain

56
Q

untreated iron toxicity

A

liver failure, bone damage, diabetes, heart failure, and infections

57
Q

zinc

A

a key component of many enzymes, which help to:
-make part of the cells’ genetic material
-protect cell structures against damage from oxidation
-make heme in hemoglobin
assists the pancreas with digestive and insulin functions
-helping to metabolize macronutrients
zinc-containing enzymes associate with DNA to help regulate protein synthesis and cell division
-critical to normal growth before and after birth
zinc is in the active form of vitamin A
-deficiency can impair night vision
affects behavior, learning and mood
essential to wound healing

58
Q

selenium

A

anti-oxidant

selenium containing enzymes assist iodide-containing thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism

59
Q

fluoride

A

NOT ESSENTIAL TO LIFE

beneficial in the diet because of its ability to inhibit the development of dental caries in children and adults

60
Q

chromium

A 
carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
food chromium: safe and essential to health
industrial chromium: toxic contaminant that damages DNA and is a known carcinogen
enhances the activity of insulin
-improves cellular uptake of glucose
without chromium
-diabetes-like condition
-elevated blood glucose
-impaired glucose tolerance and insulin and glucagon responses
present in whole/unrefined foods
-liver
-brewer's yeast
-whole grains
61
Q

copper

A

helps form hemoglobin
enzymes depend on copper for its oxygen handling capabilities
assists in handling of iron and aids in release of energy
helps control damage from free-radicals

62
Q

manganese

A

work with body proteins and enzymes

63
Q

molybdenum

A

work with body proteins and enzymes

64
Q

zinc deficiency

A

stunted growth
immature sexual organs
partially reversible when zinc is restored to the diet
discovered half a century ago in children in the Middle East
Diets high in fiber and phytates, low in animal protein
Fiber and phytates bind zinc (and iron)
yeast in leavened bread breaks down phytates as bread rises

65
Q

zinc toxicity

A

over 50mg
-supplement use
-vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, exhaustion
high zinc limits iron absorption and vice versa

66
Q

zinc for vegetarians

A

zinc from meat is bioavailable
less bioavailable sources in vegetarian diet are whole grains and legumes
zinc-enriched cereals and whole-grain breads well-leavened with yeast are advised

67
Q

selenium and chronic disease

A

adequate blood selenium is associated with decreased risk of

  • prostate cancer
  • colon cancer
  • breast cancer
68
Q

selenium deficiency

A

free radical formation–>increased inflammation
severe deficiency leads to muscle disorders
-heart disease

69
Q

selenium toxicity

A

from supplement use

  • hair loss and brittle nails
  • diarrhea and fatigue
  • bone, joint, and nerve abnormalities
70
Q

fluoride in teeth and bones

A

fluoride ions replace hydroxide ions inside teeth and bones
small amounts of fluoride strengthens teeth and bones
too much fluoride causes teeth and bones to be too dense and brittle

71
Q

fluoride in teeth

A

acts directly on bacteria of plaque

-suppresses their metabolism and reduces the amount of tooth-destroying acid that they produce

72
Q

fluoride toxicity

A

makes bones too brittle

  • causes them to bend
  • brown mottling of teeth
73
Q

copper deficiency

A

is uncommon, but not unheard of

  • excess zinc can impair copper absorption
  • disturb growth and metabolism
  • impair immunity and blood flow
74
Q

copper food sources

A

organ meats
seafood
nuts and seeds
water (copper plumbing)

75
Q

sources of manganese and molybdenum

A 
whole grains
vegetables
fruits
legumes
nuts
76
Q

what are the fat soluble vitamins

A

A,D,E,K

77
Q

vitamins

A

“vital” for life
essential, non-caloric, organic nutrients needed in tiny amounts in the body
assist in digestion, absorption, metabolism, and structure

78
Q

vitamin precursors

A

vitamins are available in foods

vitamin precursors are also available in foods and are converted into vitamins in the body

79
Q

fat-soluble vitamins

A 
mostly absorbed into the lymph
travel in blood with protein carriers
stored in liver and in adipose tissue with other lipids
-toxicities can occur because of storage
from fats and oils in foods
require bile for absorption
stored in the liver
80
Q

fat soluble vitamin storage

A

not needed every day
can survive weeks without dietary sources
toxicity can occur

81
Q

fat soluble vitamin deficiency

A

occur when diet is consistently low
intestinal surgery
fat malabsorption (liver disease)
mineral oil as a laxative

82
Q

vitamin A

A

first vitamin discovered
precursor from foods is beta-carotene
animal foods provide vitamin A
plant foods provide beta-carotene

83
Q

vitamin A’s role in vision

A

sustain normal eyesight
light perception in the retina
healthy, clear cornea
cells of the retina contain rhodopsin which cannot be formed without vitamin A

84
Q

active forms of vitamin A

A

retinal
-stored in specialized cells of the liver
-released into the bloodstream for use by cells
cells convert retinol into
-retinal
-retinoic acid as needed
retinoid acid is essential for gene regulation
-ultimately metabolism and health

85
Q

xeropthalmia

A

keratin accumulates and clouds the cornea (keratinization)
xerosis (drying) as it worsens
thickening and permanent blindness (xerophthalmia)
lack of vitamin A results in over keratinization

86
Q

cell differentiation

A

vitamin A needed by epithelial tissues
-external skin
-internal lining
goblet cells populate lining of internal organs
-differentiate into cells that mucus
without vitamin A
-globlet cells are displaced by cells that produce keratin
-tissue surfaces are dry, hard, cracked
-vulnerable to infection (EX: respiratory, urinary)

87
Q

vitamin A immunity

A

“anti-infective”

immune cascades that fight infection are vitamin A dependent

88
Q

vitamin A reproduction and growth

A

men: sperm development
women: supports normal fetal development
developing embryo: crucial for formation of the spinal cord, heart, and other organs
child: bone dismantling to allow for regeneration and growth

89
Q

beta-carotene

A

beta-carotene–>retinol
-retinol=active vitamin A
confers losses
vitamin A activity for precursors is measured in RAE (retinol activity equivalents)
~12ug of beta-carotene from food=~1ug of retinol in the body

90
Q

vitamin D

A

vitamin D is not an essential nutrient, given sufficient sun each day
greater than 50% of the US Population has normal blood concentrations of vitamin D
vitamin D listed as a “nutrient of concern” by the DGA

91
Q

vitamin D synthesis

A

sunlight supplies necessary amount without toxicity
UV rays hit a cholesterol compound in the skin that gets transformed into a vitamin D precursor that is absorbed directly into the blood

92
Q

vitamin D activation

A

vitamin D precursor gets processed in the liver where it then becomes activated

93
Q

vitamin D synthesis and activation

A

dark skin pigments protect against UV radiation
darker-skinned people require up to 3 hours of direct sun
lighter-skinned people require about 5 minutes without sunscreen or 10-30 minutes with sunscreen

94
Q

active vitamin D hormone function

A

manufactured by one organ, but acts on another

95
Q

active vitaminD regulates calcium and phosphorus in the blood

A

maintains bone integrity

regulates calcium at three sites: bone, digestive tract, and kidneys

96
Q

active vitamin D cells

A

affects genetic material that dictates growth and function

97
Q

vitamin D deficiencies

A 
rickets
-bowed legs
-beading on ribs
-osteomalacia (soft, airy bones)
obesity
-greater blood volume
-sequestered to fat tissues
--they have deficient vitamin D; however, due to the weight their bones carry their bones are actually stronger
98
Q

vitamin d toxicity

A 
vitamin d raises
calcium in the blood raises
calcium in the bones lower
-vitamin d collects in soft tissues, damaging them
-extreme case=kidney and heart failure
99
Q

vitamin e

A

Tokos greek word for offspring
compound in vegetable oil that is essential for reproduction in rats-tocopherol
alpha, beta, gamma, and delta types of vitamin c
alpha-tocopherol- vitamin e activity

100
Q

vitamin e is a potent antioxidant

A

scavenges free radicals and gets oxidized

101
Q

vitamin e deficiency

A

people with disease that affect fat absorption
-results in loss of muscle coordination and reflexes
-impaired vision and speech
premature infants
-before transfer of vitamin from mother to baby
-erythrocyte hemolysis
-anemia

102
Q

vitamin e toxicity

A

supplements
augments anticoagulant medication
-uncontrolled bleeding
-increased risk of stroke

103
Q

vitamin k

A

produced by intestinal bacteria
activates proteins that help clot blood
-administered if uncontrolled bleeding occurs
necessary for synthesis of key bone proteins
-green leafy vegetable consumption (vitamin K) associated with fewer hip fractures compared to lower intakes

104
Q

why do babies need vitamin k shots

A

because they don’t have intestinal bacteria yet (AKA micro biome) and they can be prone to internal bleeding so getting this shot the baby won’t die from loss of blood

105
Q

vitamin K deficiency

A

antibiotic use

medical conditions that affect absorption of fat

106
Q

vitamin K toxicity

A

rare
pregnant women and infants taking supplements with synthetic vitamin k
-red blood cells break, giving a yellow tone to skin
-liver releases bilirubin (blood cell pigment) into the blood leading to jaundice
–normally bilirubin is excreted into bile

107
Q

scurvy

A

symptoms: pale skin, sunken eyes, loss of teeth
james lind in 1747 discovered that giving sailors citrus fruits-specifically limes-it would cure scurvy
after 1800-“limeys”
-british navy gives lemon juice to sailors
–lime was used in the initial experiment
-ascorbic acid=”no-scurvy acid”
-common name=vitmain C

108
Q

roles of vitamin C

A
  • maintaining connective tissue
  • antioxidant activity
  • -protects foods and cells from oxidation
  • -immune cells: to protect from free radicals and recycled
  • -intestines: protects iron from oxidation and aids absorption
  • -blood: proteins from oxidation, reduces tissue inflammation, and help maintain vitamin E levels by protecting it and recycling it to its active form
  • collagen
  • -forms scar tissue
  • -reinforcing tissue that mends fractures
  • -supporting material of capillaries that prevents bruises
109
Q

prooxidant

A

laboratory setting

high doses activate elements such as iron and copper

110
Q

vitamin C and the common cold

A

cold prevention has not been established by clinical trials
fewer colds, shorter colds, fewer days of severe symptoms have been shown in some studies
sufficient intake crucial to white blood cell development (our main defenders against infection)
up to 2g/d reduce blood histamine (sneezy, stuffy, swollen)
placebo effect

111
Q

vitamin C deficiency

A 
loss of appetite
growth cessation
tenderness to touch
weakness
bleeding gums
losing teeth
red spots in skin
swollen ankles and wrists
anemia
112
Q

vitamin c toxicity

A

impaired insulin response
opposite effect to anti-clotting medications
kidney stone formation in people with kidney diseases or gout
mild digestive upsets
increased absorption

113
Q

the B vitamins

A 
function as part of coenzymes
-molecule that combines with an enzyme to activate it
114
Q

B vitamins for energy

A

B vitamins do not contain energy

B vitamins help carbohydrate, protein, and fat breakdown giving the body fuel for energy

115
Q

5 vitamins help release energy from macronutrients

A 
thiamin
riboflavin
niacin
pantothenic acid
biotin
116
Q

vitamin B6

A

helps the body use amino acids to synthesize proteins

helps proteins build new tissue, making hormones, fight infections, and serve for fuel for energy

117
Q

folate and B12

A

help cells multiple
important for cells with short life spans
digestive tract (3 days)
RBC (120 days)
these cells absorb and deliver energy to all others

118
Q

vitamin B deficiencies

A

not seen alone
we eat foods, not nutrients
deficiencies realized by animal study
symptoms: nausea, exhaustion, irritability, depression, forgetfulness, loss of appetite and weight, muscle pain, decreased immune response, loss of control of limbs, abnormal heart action, severe skin problems, teary or bloodshot eyes, smooth/inflamed tongue, cracks at the sides of a person’s lips

119
Q

thiamin

A

critical to energy metabolism
occupies a special site on nerve cell membranes
-nerve processes and muscles depend on thiamin

120
Q

thiamin deficiency-Beriberi

A 
wet beriberi=cardiovascular system
-results in edema-swelling
dry beriberi=nervous system
-numb hands and feet
christian eijkman, dutch physician=noticed this deficiency in prisons
121
Q

wernicke-korsakoff syndrome

A

severe thiamin deficiency observed in developed countries
result of severe alcohol abuse
alcohol: carries energy but no nutrients, displaces food from the diet, impairs thiamin absorption, and hastens thiamin excretion in urine

122
Q

riboflavin

A

plays a role in energy metabolism
deficiencies confused for thiamin deficiency, because thiamin deficiency is the more severe form of symptoms
-cracks at corners of mouth
-sore throat
-hypersensitivity to light
providing riboflavin-containing foods also supplies thiamin and clears both deficiencies
destroyed by UV light and irrigation, but not heat

123
Q

niacin

A

participates in energy and metabolism (like thiamin and riboflavin)

  • presence of pellagra: diarrhea, dementia, dermatitis, death
  • pellagra diet: when people were living off of corn, salted pork, and molasses
  • tryptophan is an amino acid thetis a precursor to niacin

NFS 043 (9 decks)

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