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Physiology Exam 4 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Innate immunity

A

Innate meaning were born with it and it’s nonspecific in that it goes after everything that is non-self

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2
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

It is adaptive (learned from exposure to specific pathogen) and it is specific (attacks specific pathogens) and it is mediated by lymphocytes

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3
Q

External defenses

A

Skin:serves as a physical barrier and secretes lysozymes
Digestive tract:gastric acid kill pathogens and beneficial colon bacteria compete to outnumber pathogenic bacteria
Genitourinary tract:urine and vaginal pH are slightly acidic to kill pathogens
Respiratory tract: epithelial cells have Cilia and secrete mucus your push pathogens up and out of the tract through nose and mouth

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4
Q

How do you phagocytic cells distinguish self from nonself?

A

They have toll like receptors that recognize PAMP like liposaccharides found on g- bacteria and peptidoglycan found on g+ bacteria

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5
Q

The complement system and its roles

A

A group of 30 proteins that circulate in the blood and when activated enhance the immune system clearing pathogens.

Soluble complement proteins serve as at chemokines that attract other molecules or cells through chemotaxis

Opsonize (coat) pathogens for easy detection by phagocytes

Form Mac which are pores on pathogens that causes cell to completely lyse

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6
Q

Inflammation

A

Characterized by redness, warmth, swelling and pain

  1. Antibodies recognize the bacteria as foreign
  2. Complement proteins opsonize the bacteria
  3. Complement signals to mast cells to release histamines which cause vasodilation and increased capillary permeability and prostaglandins which causes pain
  4. Soluble complement proteins act as chemokines attracting neutrophils and monocytes
  5. Those cells squeeze in between cells through a process known as extravasation or dipedesis
  6. Neutrophils release proteases turning cells into pus to reduce the spread of pathogen
  7. Monocytes differentiate into macrophages that phagocytose the pus
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7
Q

Where are B and T lymphocytes born and where do they mature?

A

B cells are born in mature in the bone marrow

T cells are born in the thymus and begin maturing there but then finish maturing in the spleen and lymph nodes

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8
Q

B cells

A

Secrete antibodies, humoral or antibody mediated, attack invaders outside of the cell, attack bacteria and some viruses from a distance

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9
Q

T cells

A

Cell mediated adaptive immunity, attack invaders inside the cell, attack virus or fungus infected, cancerous cells, organ transplant

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10
Q

IgM

A

Pentamer

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11
Q

IgA

A

Dimer, secreted from mucosal membranes ex: milk and saliva

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12
Q

IgD, IgE, IgG

A

Monomers

IgG most common
IgE allergies

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13
Q

Why can a lymphocytes make antigen receptors before they are exposed to antigens

A

VDJ recombination

The VDJ segments recombine (copy/paste) to get millions of different antigen receptor possibilities

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14
Q

Describe the process by which auto-reactive lymphocytes are rejected

A

Auto-reactive meaning they bind to a self antigen, they are destroyed by clinal deletion or rendered inactive by clonal anergy

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15
Q

Process by which naive B cells are activated

A

A naïve lymphocyte means that the person has never been exposed to the antigen

When the person does become exposed the lymphocyte recognize the antigen and makes a stop at a lymphoid organ to present it to helper T cells, this binding helps activate the T cells and in turn helps activate the B cell

Then enters the germinal center to divide and make a whole clone of cells into plasma cells which make antibodies and memory cells

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16
Q

Regulatory T cell

A

Regulate the activity of helper and killer T cells

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17
Q

Primary response

A

Immune response that occurs when naive B or T cells are activated

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18
Q

Secondary response

A 
When the memory cells are activated 
Memory cells also divide faster and are longer lived 
They are more effective 
IgM primary 
IgG secondary
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19
Q

Why is gas exchange fast?

A

Many alveoli means a very large surface area and there is an extensive capillary bed surrounding alveoli and the alveolar lining is simple squamous epithelium made of type one alveolar cells

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20
Q

Alveoli pores

A

Used to so that if they collapse air can be rerouted to other alveoli

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21
Q

Alveoli compliant

A

Means they can stretch and descend which allows them to inflate (fill up with air)

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22
Q

Alveoli surfactant

A

To prevent alveoli from collapsing
It separates water molecules thus decreasing tension and decreasing pressure needed to inflate
Without it newborns wouldn’t be able to take their first breath

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23
Q

Quiet inspiration

A

Thoracic cavity expands

Diaphragm and external intercostals contract

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24
Q

Quiet expiration

A

No muscle contraction is needed

Thoracic cavity and lung recoil

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25
Q

Muscles of inspiration

A 
Stemocleidomastoid 
Scalenes
External intercostals
Parasternal intercostals 
Diaphragm
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26
Q

Muscles of expiration

A

Internal intercostals
External and internal abdominal oblique
Transversus abdominis
Rectus abdominis

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27
Q

Accessory muscles

A

Help with forced inspiration and expiration

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28
Q

Restrictive respiratory disorder

A

Lung tissue damage, vital capacity is down, forced expiration is normal

Pulmonary fibrosis, black lungs

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29
Q

Obstructive disorder

A

Lung tissue normal, but flow of air is obstructed so forced expiration is reduced and vital capacity is normal

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

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30
Q

Emphysema

A

Both restrictive and obstructive

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31
Q

Why does pressure decrease with higher altitudes but increase below sea level?

A

Air less dense closer to earth

More dense the lower you go

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32
Q

Alveolar air

A

Has more co2 than O2(inspired)
Always saturated water vapor
Total pressures are the same

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33
Q

Henry’s law depends on what 3 factors?

A

Temperature: the amount of gas that dissolves increases as temperatures decrease, temp constant at 37degreesC

Solubility of gas: also constant

Partial pressure of the gas: solubility increases with partial pressure increases

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34
Q

Gas exchange in pheumonia

A

Alveoli fill with water and mucus, so diffusion distance increases and diffusion rate decreases

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35
Q

Gas exchange in Emphysema

A

Alveoli die off, surface area decreases and so diffusion rate decreases

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36
Q

% of o2 transported in blood

A

2% dissolved in plasma, 98% transported bound to hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin within erythrocytes

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37
Q

% of co2 transported in blood

A

10% dissolved in plasma, 20% bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin, and 70% reacts chemically with water to form carbonic acid which in turn dissociates into bicarbonate ion and hydrogen ion

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38
Q

Percent oxyhemoglobin saturation

A

To see if blood is well oxygenated(97% or higher out of 100) measure using a pulse oximeter

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39
Q

Relationship between o2 and po2 binding to hemoglobin

A

The higher the po2 the more o2 molecules bind to hemoglobin

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40
Q

What does the sigmoidal shape do?

A

Enhances loading at the lungs and unloading at the tissues

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41
Q

Loading

A

Loading of o2 onto hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin

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42
Q

Unloading

A

Unloading o2 from hemoglobin to form deoxyhemoglobin

43
Q

What % o2 does systemic arteries hold?

A

100%

44
Q

What % o2 does systemic veins at rest hold?

A

75%

45
Q

What % o2 does system veins during exercise hold?

A

40%

46
Q

At the lungs Increase in po2 and increase pco2 in blood

A

Favor loading

47
Q

In tissues increase in pco2 and decrease in blood plasma

A

Favor unloading

48
Q

How does temperature affect loading and unloading?

A

Higher temperatures enhance unloading of o2

49
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

A

Increases in plasma co2

50
Q

Regulation of breathing involving pH

A

If ph goes down (acidic) hyperventilation occurs

If ph goes up (basic) hypoventilation occurs

51
Q

What 4 variables to kidneys regulate?

A

They kidneys regulate blood
Volume(blood pressure)

pH

Wastes

Electrolytes

52
Q

What is the function of the nephron?

A

Filter blood, then modify the filtrate producing urine that is then drained into the ureter

53
Q

What is micturition?

A

Urination

54
Q

Glomerulus

A

Filters the blood, and the rest if modified in the rest of the nephron and urine is collected by the collecting duct

55
Q

Describe the three functional processes of the nephron and where they happen

A

Filtration: glomerulus filters blood

Readsorption: 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed by the blood the other 1% excreted as urine (happens down the rest of the nephron)

Secretion: molecule in the blood that need to be excreted in the urine are secreted from blood in the nephron (end of nephron)

56
Q

Describe the structure/function of the 3 components to the glomerular filter

A
  1. Fenestrae(windows or pores) in the fenestrated capillaries
  2. The thick glomerular basement membrane
  3. The slit diaphragm found on filtration slits found between adjoining podocyte pedicels. This diaphragm is made of a network of molecules that acts as a filter

Molecules like glucose and inorganic ions are small enough to make through these sections

57
Q

Define glomerular filtration rate

A

The volume of filtrate produced by both kidneys per minute, is 115-125 mL/min

58
Q

How is GFR regulated intrinsically?

A

If MAP is between 70-180 it regulates it intrinsically by dilation or constriction.

If it drops afferent arteriole dilates to increase blood flow to glomerulus

If it rises it constricts to decrease blood flow

59
Q

How is GFR regulated extrinsically?

A

If MAP is too low GFR is regulated extrinsically

Sympathetic system tells afferent arteriole to constrict, so this decreases GFR and less urine is being made so higher blood volume so higher MAP

60
Q

What is glycosuria and what causes it?

A

Glucose in the urine

If there’s too much glucose that it can’t all be absorbed

61
Q

How are the juxtamedullary nephrons different than the cortical nephrons?

A

The juxtamedullary is longer so it’s better at concentrating urine than the shorter more common cortical nephrons

62
Q

What is inulin and why can it be used to measure GFR in the clinic?

A

Inulin can be found in some plants but not in your human body.

It’s only filtered not reabsorbed so if you inject it into the blood and measure it’s renal clearance it is equal to GFR

63
Q

What is renal clearance?

A

Once you what GFR is you can measure the renal clearance of whatever molecule you’re interested in, in mL/min

64
Q

Negative feedback loop used to regulate high plasma osmolality

A

Osmoreceptors sense this and makes an antidiuretic hormone, target cells in collecting ducts make more aquaporin channels to increase water reabsorption (so you retain water bringing osmolality back down to its set point

65
Q

Negative feedback loop used to regulate low blood volume

A

Aldosterone tells kidneys to reabsorb salt and when salt is reabsorbed water follows via osmosis

Granular cells sense low blood flow in afferent arteriole which stimulates them to secrete renin into the blood (mascula densa cells are what tell granular cells to do this)

66
Q

Negative feedback loop used to regulate high blood volume and pressure

A

Stretch receptors in left atrium stretch more which causes…

The heart to tell the brain to tell the kidneys to decrease ADH secretion

The LA of the heart to secrets ANP which tells kidneys to extreme Na+ (therefore water too)

67
Q

What do kidneys by default do with plasma HCO3 and H+?

A

HCO3 is secreted into the proximal convoluted tubule and H+ is secreted into the distal convoluted tubule

So kidneys can regulate acid base balance by reabsorbing more or less HCO3 as needed and by secreting more or less H+ as needed

68
Q

Alkalosis

A

Plasma to basic or alkaline

Less HCO3 and more H+
Less HCO3 absorbed less H+ secreted
More k+ than h+

69
Q

Acidosis

A

Plasma to acidic

More HCO3 and less H+
Reabsorbe more HCO3 and less H+
More H+ than K+

70
Q

Hyperkalemia

A

Too much K+

Secrete K+ not H+

71
Q

Parts of the GI tract starting with the mouth

A

Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anal canal, anus

72
Q

Functions of the GI tract

A 
Motility
Secretion
Digestion
Absorption 
Storage and elimination 
Immune barrier
73
Q

Motility: INGESTION

A

Food in

74
Q

Motility: MASTICATION

A

Chew

75
Q

Motility: DEGLUTION

A

Swallow

76
Q

Motility: PERISTALSIS

A

Propel forward/down tract

77
Q

Motility: SEGMENTATION

A

Churn, blend

78
Q

Secretion

A

Exocrine, endocrine, paracrine

79
Q

Digestion

A

Physical/mechanical, chemical (enzymes)

80
Q

Absorption

A

Into blood or lymph

81
Q

Storage and elimination

A

If undigested food molecules

82
Q

Immune barrier

A

Tight junctions

Immune cells

83
Q

Mucosa

A

Simple columnar epithelium for enhanced absorption and secretion,

Highly folded for increased surface area

84
Q

Submucosa

A

Connective tissue underlying the mucosa

Highly vascularized to pick up any nutrients absorbed by mucosa

Glands for secretion

85
Q

Muscularis

A

Smooth muscle responsible for peristalsis and segmentation

86
Q

Serosa

A

Outer binding protective layer

87
Q

What happens in the stomach

A

It stores food and chums it to mix with gastric juice

88
Q

What secretions are found in gastric juice?

A

Exocrine secretions and water

89
Q

How is the stomach lining protected from low pH?

A

By replacing the epithelium every 3 days

By bicarbonate containing mucus

By tight junctions

90
Q

What happens in the small intestine?

A

Where all chemical digestion is completed and most nutrients are absorbed

91
Q

Role of plicae and villi

A

Increase surface area

92
Q

Role of microvilli and brush-border enzymes

A

The folds of the plasma membrane are called microvilli, and the microvilli make up the brush border which contains digestive enzymes

93
Q

Microbiota

A

In the large intestine

Makes vitamins B and K and fermenting plant molecules indigestible by humans

94
Q

Large intestine

A

Whatever is not absorbed by the small intestine(mostly water, electrolytes) is absorbed by this

Feces stored here

The rectum sphincter regulated defecation

95
Q

Functions of the liver

A

Making bile and sending it to the small intestine

Detoxifying blood

Regulates level of fuel molecules in blood

Makes plasma proteins

96
Q

Components of bile

A

Liver makes 250-1,500 mL a day of bile which is a mixture of

Bile pigment
Fat emulsifiers: bile salts, phospholipids, cholesterol
Exogenous compounds like antibiotic metabolites

97
Q

Describe how hemoglobin heme is excreted in feces and urine

A

Heme can’t be recycled so the liver makes it bilirubin more water soluble by conjugating it to a polar molecule

In the gut the bilirubin is further metabolized into urobilinogen, which can give feces it’s brown color and urine it’s yellow color

98
Q

Fat elmusifiers

A

Physically break down big globs of fat into smaller globules

It increases surface area so lipases can chemically digest more fats

99
Q

Anabolic process of the liver

A

Anabolic glycogenesis and lipogenesis

100
Q

Catabolic process in the liver

A

Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, ketogenesis

101
Q

What does the gallbladder do?

A

Stores and concentrates bile

Secretes bile when more is needed for a heavy fatty metal

102
Q

Components of pancreatic juice and role of each

A

Contains more than 20 enzymes to chemically digest lipids, carbs, proteins, nucleic acids

Also has HCO3 to neutralize acidic chyme from coming into the stomach

103
Q

LDL

A

Transport from liver to other organs

104
Q

HDL

A

Transport lipids from organs back to liver

Physiology Exam 4 (1 decks)

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