Family and Households Flashcards
explain what is meant by ‘the family’
given the range and diversity of family structures and relationships, defining the family today presents a challenge for sociologists.
In the past, the nuclear family was the basic and central family structure: two generations living together with biologically related children, headed by a heterosexual couple.
Today, this definition is challenged by the wide variety of alternative family structures that successfully exist.
A broader, more inclusive and more contemporary definition of the family might be a group of people related by kinship ties and civil relationships.
explain what is meant by ‘the household’
A household is different from a family as it can include individuals living alone/or a group of people living together without necessarily being related, married or committed to each other.
If a household consists of a group of people, a key characteristic of it, is the sharing of bills, facilities, meals and chores etc.
state the four key patterns and trends in relation to marriage
- fewer people are marrying
- remarriages are increasing
- people are marrying later
- civil ceremonies have increased
explain the key pattern and trend of fewer people marrying
Fewer people are marrying:
- The number of first-time marriages peaked in 1940 are 426,000 when 91% were first marriages for both partners. By 2012, the number of first marriages for one or both partners had fallen to 175.00.
- The long-term picture for UK marriages has been one of decline, from a peak of 480,285 marriages in 1972, with 2010 showing in the first increase since 2004. In 2017, there were 242,842 marriages (dropped to 127,000 in 2020)
- The proportion of households that contain a married couple has fallen from 74% in 1961, 58% in 1996 to 50.4% in 2019.
- In 2010, the marriage rate (expressed per 1000 unmarried people aged 16 and over) was 8.7. Marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920s.
Explain the reasons for the trend of why fewer people are marrying
Reasons for the trend of why fewer people are marrying:
- more socially acceptable to live in alternatives to marriage e.g. cohabitation, civil partnerships, or staying single as stigma of not marrying has declined.
- having sex outside of marriage is more acceptable
- secularisation - declining influence of religion in the UK as the UK is more secularised.
- changing role of women - women are more financially independent and have security compared to the past.
- There is less expectation for women to marry as women are more career-focused.
- cost of money to get married (cost implications)
- marrying is no longer needed to have a child.
- marriage is not seen as a necessary and more viewed as a patriarchal institution.
- divorce rates are high
explain the key pattern and trend of remarriages increasing
Remarriages are increasing:
- A pattern of serial monogamy has emerged (marriage/divorce/remarriage): in 1999, 108.488 marriages were remarriages for one or both partners accounting for 41% of all marriages. However, by 2012 the number had decreased and 80,890 marriage were remarriages for one or both partners accounting for 34% of all marriages. (Remarriages for both partners accounted for 15% of all marriages, the remaining 19% accounted for those where one partner has been married previously)
- While recent figures suggest a slight decrease in the number of remarriages since the 1970s, the trend has been one of an increase more generally.
state reasons for the trend of remarriages increasing
- remarriages/divorces are less stigmatised and are socially acceptable
- declining influence of religion - the trend of secularisation in UK society.
- serial monogamy are more socially acceptable
- less expected to stay in a marriage for kids
- ageing population - people marry later and live longer
explain the key trend of people marrying later
People are marrying later:
- The average age for marriage in 1971 was 25 for men and 23 for women. In 2016, for opposite sec marriages, it was 37.9 for males and 35.5 for females and in same sex marriages it was 40.8 for males and 37.4 for females.
- For first time marriage, the average in 2016 was 32 for men and 30 for women.
state reasons for the trend for people are marrying later
- more people are career-driven/ orientated as people want to invest in their education e.g. post-graduate, good career
- people cohabit first then marry
- cost - people want to save for marriage costs
- more of norm to marry later (people follow this established norm)
- no rush to get married at a younger age as people will wait for the ‘right one’
explain the key trend of civil ceremonies have increased
Civil ceremonies have increased:
- Couple are less likely to marry in church today and there has been an increase in social rather than religious ceremonies. The proportion of civil ceremonies first exceeded the number of religious ceremonies in 1992 and since this year, civil marriages have increasingly outnumbered religious ceremonies.
- In 1981, 60% of weddings were conducted with religious ceremonies but by 2016 this had fallen to fewer than 24%
- In 2014, only 61 same sex marriages were religious ceremonies
state reasons for the trend of civil ceremonies have increased
reasons for civil ceremonies increasing:
- greater openness as people from same-sex relationships prefer civil ceremonies when marrying
- there are more available venues/ locations for civil ceremonies
- secularisation growing trend in the UK which means there is a decrease of religious ceremonies and increase in civil ceremonies
explain the trend of cohabitation and why it has increased over the years
COHABITATION:
As marriage decreases the trend towards cohabitation has increased (a couple who live together but are not married). In 2019, the ONS (office of national statistics) stated that about 3.4 million heterosexual couples were cohabiting in the UK, this has increased by 25.8 in a decade which made cohabitation the fastest growing family trend in the UK. Data from 2015, shows that there were approximately 90,000 same sex couples cohabiting. Cohabitation is more common among younger age groups; 69.2% of those aged 16-29 years who were living as a couple were cohabiting compared to 4.5% of those aged 70 and above.
Some see cohabitation as a permanent alternative to marriage and therefore this trend has been interpreted as evidence of the declining popularity and social significance of marriage, however for the majority, cohabitation is but a stepping stone to marriage (temporary phrase to prepare for marriage).
explain cohabitation as a permanent alternative to marriage
Cohabitation as a permanent alternative to marriage:
For some cohabitation has become marriage by another name. Drawing on data from the British and European Attitudes Survey (2000) BARLOW et all (2001) found that the marriage had become more a lifestyle choice than an expected part of life.
CHANDLER (1993) suggests that cohabitation has increasingly become accepted as a long-term permanent alternative to marriage and this is reflected in the increasing proportion of children born outside of marriage in cohabiting relationships.
Although CHANDLER sees cohabitation as a increasingly popular she points out this is nothing new as many as a quarter to a third of couples lived in a consensual union in the 18th.
This supports the works of GILLIS (1985) who found that the period 1850-1960 was historically exceptional for the high rates for marriage. Long term cohabitation is clearly not a new phenomenon.
explain cohabitation as a prelude to marriage
Cohabitation as a prelude to marriage:
However, most evidence suggests that cohabitation is seen as part of the process of getting married, rather than a permanent substitute for it. It is a short term premarital relationship.
Reflecting this CHESTER (1985) argued that in most cases cohabitation is a transient, temporary phase before marriage – a stepping stone to it.
COAST (2006) found that 75% of cohabiting couples expect to marry each other if their cohabitation is successful. Without question, since the late 1980s it has become the norm to cohabit before marriage, it has become a majority practice with approximately 80% of marriages being preceded by cohabitation. Indeed, marriage without first living together is now as unusual as premarital cohabitation was in the past.
BEAUJOUAN and NI BHROLCHAIN (2011) believe that the rise of cohabitation in the UK is probably the reason for the the decrease in divorce rates in the recent years - this is because it trends to screen/filter out weaker relationships as couples have the opportunity to test their relationship though a trial period before committing to marriage.
patterns and trends in relation to divorce increasing
Throughout the twentieth century there was a sustained increase in the divorce rate in all modern societies. In England and Wales, the divorce rate steadily increased until it stabilised in 1994 (at a historically high level). Latest statistics (published December 2012) estimate that 42% of marriages in England and Wales end in divorce.
1911 - 859 petitions were filed for divorce.
1961 - 32,000
1971 - 111,000
1981 - 170,000
1991 - 179,000
1993 - 180,000
2001 - 157,000
2011 - 118,000
The 1960s-1980s witnessed the largest increase in divorce. The divorce rate per 1000 married people in England and Wales rose from:
- 1 - in 1961
- 9 - in 1981
- 1 - in 1995
state reasons for an increase in divorce
reasons for an increase in divorce
- fewer people cohabitated than now as they could not check if they were compatible with their partners
- more socially acceptable to divorce as less stigmatised
- secularism as society is now less religious
- felt a pressure to marry at a younger together for religion
- women are more financially independent compared to the past
- law/legislation makes it easier to divorce
explain why the divorce rate fell
However, the number of divorces peaked in 1993 and since then there has been a general decline. Reflecting this, divorce rate fell to:
- 9 in 2001
- 8 in 2011
- 9 in 2019
The divorce rate may not seem very high but by 1996 there were nearly as many divorces as first marriages. Reflecting this, in 2011 the divorce rates was 10.8 and the marriage rate was 8.7. These figures are often used to suggest that the institution of marriage is in decline and that it is no longer valued.
However, divorce statistics should be treated with caution and assessed against legal, financial and social circumstances so that misleading conclusions about the declining importance of marriage are avoided. An increase in divorce may simply reflect a decline in the stigma attached to divorce and easier and cheaper divorce proceedings enabling the legal termination of already unhappy marriages – rather than an increase in the number of marital breakdowns. We will never know how many unhappy and dysfunctional relationships and empty-shell marriages existed before divorce was made easier. Therefore although statistics show an increase in divorce, this is not necessarily indicative of an increase in the number of marital breakdowns.
Furthermore, in 1996 although there were nearly as many divorces as first marriages, there were nearly as many remarriages as divorces! In 1961, 15% of all marriages in the UK were remarriages for one or both partners. In 1999 this figure had increased to 41% (more recently, there has been a decline in the number of remarriages and in 2009 it had fallen to 35%). Nevertheless, conclusions regarding the state of marriage cannot only be made with reference to divorce alone. To gain a comprehensive picture reference to remarriages must also be made
divorce factors
In 2011 the number of divorces in England and Wales decreased by 1.7% to 117,558 compared with 119,589 in 2010. This continues the general decline in divorces since 2003 when there were 153,065. The fall in divorces is consistent with a decline in the number of marriages to 2009. The decrease in marriages to 2009 may be due to the increasing number of couples choosing to cohabit rather than enter into marriage. However, while 42% of all marriages are estimated to end eventually in divorce other factors are likely to influence the likelihood of divorce for individuals, including:
(a) year of marriage
(b) age at marriage
(c) whether married before
explain divorce trends (a) year of marriage
(a) The percentage of marriages ending in divorce has generally increased for those marrying between the early 1970s and the early 1990s. For example, 22% of marriages in 1970 had ended by the 15th wedding anniversary, whereas 33% of marriages in 1995 had ended after the same period of time. However, for those marrying in the most recent years, since 2000, the percentage of marriages ending in divorce appears to be falling. This recent decrease may be related to the following two factors:
- Cohabitation has increased in recent years. Research in Population Trends has shown that people often live together before getting married, and this may act to filter out weaker relationships from progressing to marriage.
explain divorce trends (b) age of marriage
(b) The age at which people first marry has been increasing, and previous research also in Population Trends has shown that those marrying when they are older have a lower risk of divorce.
explain divorce trends (c) whether married before
(c) In 2011, 70% of divorces were to couples where both parties were in their first marriage, while the remaining 30% were to couples where at least one of the parties had been divorced or widowed previously. The percentage of couples divorcing where the marriage was the first for both parties has generally declined from the early 1970s to 2011. Over the same period however, the percentage of divorces where one or both parties were previously divorced has gradually increased.
explain the meaning of high divorce rates according the new right
THE NEW RIGHT:
They see a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines the traditional nuclear family. In their view, divorce creates an underclass of welfare-dependent female lone parents and deprives males of the adult male role model that they need.
explain the meaning of high divorce rates according to feminists
FEMINIST:
They disagree! They see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.
explain the meaning of high divorce rates according to postmodernists
POSTMODERNISTS:
They see a high divorce rate as giving individuals the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs. They see it as a cause of greater family diversity.
explain the meaning of high divorce rates according to Functionalists
FUNCTIONALISTS:
They argue that a high divorce rate does not necessarily prove that marriage as a social institution is under threat. It simply means that people have higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of remarriage shows people’s continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.
explain the meaning of high divorce rates according to interactionists and the personal life perspective
INTERACTIONISTS AND THE PERSONAL LIFE PERSPECTIVE:
They aim to understand the meaning that divorce has to the individual and recognise that it varies from being positive and necessary to a negative emotional development. They accept that divorce can cause problems for individuals involved, but recognise that it has become normalised and that family life can adapt to it without disintegrating – it is just s transition in the life course.
explanations for an increase in divorce
- changing social attitudes
- secularisation
- rising expectations of women
- changing role of women
- feminist
- modernity and individualism
- changes in divorce legislation
explain changing social attitudes in relation to increases in divorce
CHANGING SOCIAL ATTITUDES:
Divorce is no longer associated with shame and stigma and is increasingly accepted as fact of life. This reflects the fact that norms and values associated with both marriage and divorce have relaxed and divorce has been ‘normalised’. A long term social trend is the shift away from monogamy to serial monogamy. Many people see monogamy as unrealistic and there is less pressure to stay in an empty shell marriage
explain secularisation in relation to increases in divorce
SECULARISATION:
increase in divorce may be partly due to secularisation. Religious beliefs and vows have a less direct influence on large sections of the population and therefore there are fewer people who believe that marriage has to be ‘til death do us part’. Furthermore, many religions have softened their opposition to divorce. The increase in civil ceremonies also shows that marriage is less likely to be seen as a religious institution,
explain rising expectations of marriage in relation to increases in divorce
RISING EXPECTATIONS OF MARRIAGE:
Social expectations about marriage have changed. More people demand higher standards from their partners and want emotional and sexual compatibility, equality and companionship. In the past, when divorce was less acceptable people would have been more likely to stay in an empty shell marriage and put up with things, however today people are less likely to tolerate an unfulfilling relationship. This is linked to the ideology of romantic love - an idea that has become more dominant, whereas in the past people were unlikely to have high expectations of marriage.
What view do sociological perspectives take on rising expectations of marriage
RISING EXPECTATIONS OF MARRIAGE:
Functionalists argue that the increase in divorce is indicative and reflective of higher expectations attached to marriage rather than declining social significance.
They also point to the continuing popularity of marriage and remarriage. the latter illustrating that people are dissatisfied with a particular partner, not with the institution of marriage itself.
However, feminists are critical of this view and argue that the oppression of women within marriage is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce (reflected in the fact that it is mainly women who seek divorce)
explain the changing role of women in relation to increase in divorce
CHANGING ROLE OF WOMEN:
Feminists note that women’s expectations of marriage have radically changed and this reflects their improved status. Fewer women no longer have to stay unhappily married because they are financially dependent upon their husbands. Therefore in the past women were trapped economically, however today they have greater financial independence and there is more state help for single parent families. In 1950, 75% of divorce petitions were filed by men by 1990 over 75% were filed by women.
explain the feminist explanations in relation to increase in divorce
FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS FOR INCREASE IN DIVORCE:
While there have been big improvements in women’s position in the public sphere of employment, education, politics etc. Feminists argue that in the private sphere of family and personal relationships, change has been limited and slow. They argue that marriage remains patriarchal with men benefitting from their wives ‘triple shift’ of paid work, domestic work and emotion work. Feminists believe that women are more conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident about rejecting it
Explain modernity and individualism in relation increase in divorce
MODERNITY AND INDIVIDUALISATION:
Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) argue that in modern society, traditional norms such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals. As a result, individuals become free to pursue their own self-interest. This is known as the individualisation thesis. Relationships thus become more fragile as individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of the children, if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment and satisfy their needs. This results in a higher divorce rate which normalises and further strengthens the belief that marriage exists to provide personal fulfilment.
explain changes in divorce legislation in relation to increase in divorce
CHANGES IN DIVORCE LEGISLATION:
Changes in divorce law have generally made it easier and cheaper to end marriages but this in itself is not the cause of increases in divorce. Legal changes often reflect other changes in society, especially attitudinal change.
state types of divorce legislation
DIVORCE LEGISLATION:
- 1857 Matrimonial causes act
- 1937 Divorce reform act
- 1949 Legal Aid and Advice act
- 1969 divorce reform act
- 1984 matrimonial and family proceedings act
- 1996 family law act
- 2004 civil partnership act
- 2007 appeal court ruling
- 2014 same sex marriage act
Explain the 1857 matrimonial causes act
1857 MATRIOMONIAL CAUSES ACT -
This made divorce available through the courts rather than having to obtain an Act of Parliament which was only available to the very wealthy. The law influenced by the idea of matrimonial offence - the notion that one or both spouses had wronged the other. However, husbands could divorce unfaithful wives for adultery but women also had to prove other offences such as cruelty in addition to adultery. This anomaly was not removed until 1923
Explain the 1937 divorce reform act
1937 Divorce Reform Act -
This law widened the grounds to include cruelty, desertion and insanity.
Explain 1949 Legal aid and advice act
1949 LEGAL AID AND ADVICE ACT - This provided free legal advice and paid solicitors fees for those who could not afford them
Explain 1969 Divorce Reform act
1969 DIVORCE REFORM ACT - This came into effect in 1971 and reflected the liberalisation of divorce legislation. With this reform, the idea of matrimonial offence was no longer emphasised. It defined the grounds for divorce as the ‘irretrievable breakdown of marriage’. Unreasonable behaviour, adultery etc. could be cited but importantly people could divorce if their marriage has failed. This made divorce considerably easier. Divorce was available after 2 years agreed separation or 5 years if only one spouse agreed to the divorce.
Explain 1984 matrimonial and family proceedings
1984 MATRIMONIAL AND FAMILY PROCEEDINGS ACT: this reduced the period a couple had to be married from 3 years to 1 years before they could petition for divorce
Explain the 1996 Family law act
1996 FAMILY LAW ACT - this was designed to make divorce a more carefully considered decision and reduced conflict in proceedings. It encouraged couples to seek mediation but allowed divorce by agreement, after a period of reflection (9 months, 15 if there were children). It also introduced the ‘no-fault’ divorce.
Explain 2004 civil partnership act
2004 CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT - This allowed the legal dissolution of a civil partnership on the same grounds as for marriage - irretrievable breakdown
Explain 2007 Appeal court ruling
2007 APPEAL COURT RULING - In divorce settlements, the principle of equality was to apply - so the starting point is a 50-50 split of all assets including salaries and pension rights.
Explain 2014 Same Sex Marriage Act
2014 Same Sex Marriage Act - as same sex marriages became legal, the same grounds for divorce would apply to both same-se and opposite-sex couples
state 4 key trends in childbearing
- The increase in the number of children born outside of marriage
- women are having children later
- women are having fewer children
- more women are remaining childless
Explain the trend of the increase in the number of children born outside of marriage
In 1961 94% of births were registered to married couples. In 2011 the figure had decreased to 53%. However, nearly all of these births are jointly registered by both parents and in most cases the parents are cohabiting. In 1971 only 45% of births outside of marriage were jointly registered, whereas in 1992 this rose to 76%. In 2011, 84% of births were registered by parents who were either married, cohabiting or in a civil partnership.
According to Brown (1995) this trend (the increase in the number of children born outside of marriage) reflects a reduction in ‘shot gun weddings’ where couples married to legitimize a pregnancy. However, the statistics should be viewed with caution as they provide only a snapshot picture of family life, which is in it-self transitional - over half of mothers who have children outside of marriage, marry in the future.
Explain the trend of women are having children later
Between 1971 and 2012 the average age a woman had her first children rose from 24 to 28.1 years. In 2012 the average age of a mother is 29.7 years and a father is 32.6 years. 49% of babies were born to mothers over 30 and 65% of babies were born to fathers over 30.
Explain the trend of women having fewer children
Whilst the number slightly increased at the beginning of the (21st, most women are having fewer children. The average number of children per women fell from 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of 1.63 in 2001, rising to 1.91 by 2011 (the increase is largely accounted for by non-UK born women having a greater number of children).
Explain the trend of women having fewer children
Whilst the number slightly increased at the beginning of the (21st, most women are having fewer children. The average number of children per women fell from 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of 1.63 in 2001, rising to 1.91 by 2011 (the increase is largely accounted for by non-UK born women having a greater number of children).
explain the trend of more women remaining childless
In 2013 1 in 5 women reaching the age of 45 were childless.
Explain reconstituted families
Reconstituted families are essentially blended families or stepfamilies. These families are mainly born out of post-divorce parenting (however they can be constructed by widows too), where divorced people or single parents remarry and at least one partner has a child or children from a previous relationship (marriage or cohabitation). This type of family unit has increased along with the rise in divorce. Reconstituted families now account for 10% of all families with dependent children in Britain. In 86% of reconstituted families, at least one child is from the woman’s previous relationship, while in 11% there is at least one child from the man’s previous relationship. In 3%, there are children from both partners’ previous relationships.
A growing trend today, is that an increasing number of children experience co-parenting where they spend a part of the week with their mother and stepfather and the rest with their biological parent. Some experts see this as a bi-nuclear family (two separate post break up households).
What do sociologists allan and crow argue about reconstituted families
According to Allan and Crow (2001) reconstituted families may face particular problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contact with the non-resident parent.
What do sociologists Mccarthy et al and ferri and smith argue about reconstituted families
McCarthy et al (2003) argue that there is great diversity amongst reconstituted families – some have tensions whilst others have no more tensions than intact conventional nuclear families. Ferri and Smith (1998) found that reconstituted families are at greater risk of poverty because often there are more children to support and often the stepfather may have to support children from a previous relationship. Nevertheless, they did conclude that the involvement of step-parents in childcare and childrearing is usually a positive one.
Explain single/one/lone person households
Fewer people today are living as couples, there has been a big increase in the number of people living alone and as a result this is one of the key trends in contemporary British society. In 2006, almost 3 in 10 households (6.8 million people) contained only one person, nearly three times the figure for 1961.
In 2013, 3 in 10 households in the UK contained only one person, (7.7 million people) of which 4.2 million were aged 16 to 64. Of those in this age group, the majority (58%) were male. 62% of men aged 16 to 64 living alone have never married compared with 49% of women living alone in the same age group. The increase in separation and divorce has also created more one-person households, especially among men under 65. This is because, following a divorce, children are more likely to live with their mother, their father is more likely to leave the family home and become a single person household for some time.
Additionally, the decline in the numbers marrying, coupled with the trend towards people marrying later means that more people are remaining single or experience some time living in a single person household. The number of people in this age group living alone has tripled since 1961.
For those aged 65 or over, the pattern is reversed; at this age the majority of people living alone (69%) were female. This is partly due to demographic factors such as the ageing population and that there are more women than men in the total population aged 65 or over due to women’s higher life expectancy. There are 1.7 million widowed women aged 65 or over living alone in the UK, three times the number of men. Pensioner one-person households have doubled since 1961.
What does stein argue about single/one/lone person households
Stein (1976) argues that a growing number of people are deliberately choosing to live alone, what he calls ‘creative singlehood’. However, it is often also assumed that those who are not living with a partner do not have one, whether from choice or not. However research by Duncan and Phillips for the British Social Attitudes Survey (2007) found that about 1 in 10 adults are ‘living apart together’ or ‘LATs’ – they are in a significant relationship, but are not married or cohabiting.
Explain same sex families and households
Gay men, lesbians and bisexual people have been parents for a long time! Some have children from a previous heterosexual relationship, some adopt and others become foster parents. More recently, LGB people have entered into surrogacy agreements and co-parenting arrangements. The campaign group Stonewall has worked hard to ensure that all lesbian, gay and bisexual people have the same legal rights to parenthood as everyone else because they know that gay people are just as capable of creating loving and supportive families and they want to make sure that LGB people know parenting is an option for everyone – regardless of their sexual orientation.
In the UK it is legal for lesbian, gay and bisexual people to both adopt and foster children. According to the British Association for Adoption & Fostering, growing numbers of gay men and lesbians have been entering into joint adoption proceedings since adoption for same-sex couples became legal in 2005 (lesbian, gay and bisexual people have always been able to adopt as individuals). The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 and the Civil Partnership Act 2004 have made it easier for lesbian couples to secure parental rights for any children they conceive through artificial insemination. In 2011 there were 63,000 same sex cohabiting couples, 59,000 civil partnered couples and 5,000 same sex families with dependent children.
This can be contrasted to the gay lifestyle adopted by many in the 1970s, which largely rejected monogamy and family life in favour of casual relationships. EINASDOTTIR (2011) notes that, while many gays and lesbians welcome the opportunity to have their partnerships legally recognised, others fear that it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships and enforce heterosexual norms on gay and lesbian relationships.
Explain the centre for family research at the university of Cambridge
In 2010, The Centre for Family Research at the University of Cambridge conducted interviews for Stonewall with 82 children and young people who have lesbian, gay or bisexual parents to learn more about their experiences both at home and at school.
The study, ‘Different Families’, found that very young children with gay parents tend not to see their families as being any different to those of their peers. Many of the older children said they saw their families as special and different, but only because all families are special and different - though some felt that their families were a lot closer than other people’s families. The report found that children with gay parents like having gay parents and would not want things to change, but that sometimes they wish that other people were more accepting.
The research revealed problems faced by some children of gay parents at school – such as widespread use of homophobic language, homophobic bullying and the exclusion of their families and LGB people in school. But the children interviewed had very clear recommendations for schools in how to tackle these issues.
Single Parent families statistics
There were 2.9 million SPFs in 2020, which accounts for 14.7% of families in the UK; this number has not changed since 2008 when there were 2.8 million SPFs. (However, this figure has not grown significantly from 1.7 million in 2001)
Today, 1 in 4 children live in a single parent family.
state key trends for single parent families/lone parent households
- SPFs are gendered as result of out society believing women are best placed with children. 9 out of 10 SPFs are headed by single mothers. In 2019, women accounted for 92% of lone parents with dependent children.
Women are more likely to take the main caring responsibilities for any children when relationships break down and therefore become lone parents. This reflects a widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an expressive or nurturing role. As a result, divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers. Research also shows that in general, men are less willing than women to give up work to care for children.
- In contrast to the media representation and stereotype of lone parents (as young foolish girls), the average age of lone parents with dependent children in the Uk in 2019 was 39 year old (38 for single mums and 45 for single dads)
In 2019, 45% of lone parents were aged 40 or over and only 2% of lone parents were aged under 20, the same percentage as ten years earlier
That age looks set to rise too as the single parent statistics show that women over forthy-five who are having a child and not registering a father on the birth certificate has doubled since 2006
- In the past, most SPFS emerged as a result of divorce. However, in 2011, 51% of lone parents with dependent children have never been married, an increase from 42% in 2001. One contributory factor to this is the increase in cohabiting couples in 2011. 25% of live births in England and Wales. It also reflects the reality that some mothers are single and this is by choice
There are differences in the marital status of male and female lone parents with dependent children; 35% of male lone parents have never been married, compared with 52% of female lone parents. 7% of male lone parents with dependent children are widowed, more than double the percentage of female lone parents
Are SPFS are a permanent family state? is there evidence to dispute this?
SPFS are not necessarily a permanent state but a transitionary one. This reflects the notion of a family life cycle.
A university of Sheffield study (2019) has shown that over a six year period one third of families were SPFs at some point
Duncan and Rogers (1990) found that less than a third of children born into a single parent family stayed in one throughout their childhood
Explain the debate on single parent families from right-wing commentators
SPFs have been the focus of much debate over the last few decades. Right-wing commentators (politicians and journalists/newspapers that are politically conservative) idealise the nuclear family and have traditionally been critical of SPFs. The last time the Conservatives were in power (1979-1997) they were very vocal regarding their disdain of SPFs (less vocal since returning to power as part of the coalition government in 2010 – but still critical). They were critical of them largely because of three key factors.
State and explain the three key factors that the right wing believed SPFS were
The right wing were critical of SPFs as they believe they were:
Expensive - There’s either one or no income therefore this is the type of family which is disproportionally more likely to dependent on benefits (welfare benefits)
Lacking Moral Responsibility - SPFs are content to live off the state rather than be self-sufficient and independent. They represent the breakdown of the traditional nuclear family / many children are born outside of marriage or it reflects a marital breakdown
Dysfunctional - SPFS are critical of single parent families as many children are brought up and are denied two parental role models. They are particularly concerned about the number of young boys who lack a father figure and believe this will lead to behaviour problems in young boys
What do right-wing commentators such as Murray see SPFS as a social problem?
Reflecting these views, right-wing commentators saw SPFs as a social problem linked to rising levels of crime, delinquency, educational under-achievement etc. The New Right commentator MURRAY (1984) saw the growth of SPFs as resulting from an over-generous welfare state rewarding irresponsible behaviour. Therefore, when last in government the Conservatives set up the Child Support Agency (CSA) in 1993. This was designed to reduce the number of SPFs by stressing the financial responsibility of parents by enforcing absent parents to financially support their children. They believed that parents may think twice before leaving their family/children if they knew they would be forced to pay maintenance
How would the political left criticised the right wing on their view on SPFs
However, those on the political left (politicians and journalists/media and most sociologists) attribute many of the problems encountered by some SPFs to poverty rather than a reflection of being a particular type of family unit or type. They would question the assumption made by many on the political right that benefits act as a financial incentive to become a SPF as there is significant link between low living standards and SPFs. Most evidence suggests that single parents who are reliant on state benefits do not enjoy being dependent and would prefer to work to improve their standard of living, if it was practical to do so.
Define extended family
Extended family refer to any group of kin (people related by blood, marriage or adoption) extended beyond the nuclear family. The family may be extended vertically e.g. grandparents or horizontally (e.g. aunts, cousins) or both. The classic extended family lived together or in very close proximity
State trends linked to extended family
- 1996: extended families (EFs) made up 167,000 of all households and by 2020 they had increased to 278,000.
- Households containing multiple families are rapidly increasing however despite this increase they represent a very small proportion (1%) of all households in 2020.
What families are more likely to live in extended families
Extended families living a one household more common in south Asian families e.g. Pakistani, Bangladeshi families
Explain Charles research about classical three generation families
Research by CHARLES (2005) in Swansea found that the classical three generational EF all living under one roof is now ‘all but extinct’. The only significant exceptions she found were among the city’s Bangladeshi community.
Explain Willmott’s research (1998) on extended families
Willmott’s (1998) argues that in the main where EF structures continue to exist they are ‘dispersed extended families’. This is where relatives are geographically separated but maintain contact through visits and phone calls etc.
Today, the modern extended families are dispersed extended families.
Explain Rosser and Harris (1965) research on EFs
Willmott’s research reflected the findings of Rosser and Harris (1965) who found that while the Nuclear family had become the focus of family life, the extended family continued to have a role. They argued that high levels of individual, social and geographical mobility and dispersal did not prevent the maintenance of high levels of contact between extended kin.
Acknowledging that the nature, function and role of the EF had been modified they favoured the term ‘modified extended family’. This describes a condition of nuclear families in a state of partial dependence - this differentiates this type of family structure from both classical EF and the NF. - still have roles and are connected in each other lives
Explain Chamberlain’s (1999) study on Caribbean families
Chamberlain’s (1999) study of Caribbean families in Britain found that, despite being geographically dispersed, they continue to provide support which can range from emotional, financial and practical support. She describes them as ‘multiple nuclear families’ with close and frequent contact.
Overall evidence suggests that an EF structure continues to play an important role for many people today, providing both practical and emotional support. However, this is different from the classic EF whose members worked and lived together and were bound by mutual obligations.
What does sociologist Finch (1989) argue about the nature of the family
Finch (1989) argues that the nature of all family relationships are largely determined by gender, ethnicity, economics, generation and region
State the type of support the family can provide
Practical - childcare, transport etc
Financial - financial assistance
Emotional - childcare. provide comfort and resolve problems, and technological advances to keep in contact
What has contributed largely to the diversity of families and households
Immigration into Britain over the last 60-70 years has contributed to greater ethnic diversity. 2011 census data shows that 86% of the UK population (54 million) were White. Of the 14% belonging to an ethnic minority, the main groups were Asian and British Asian: Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi (7.5%); Black and Black British: Black Caribbean, Black African or Black other (3.3%); Chinese (0.8%) and other (2.2%). Greater ethnic diversity has contributed to the types of families and households found in contemporary Britain.
Explain the family patterns of black families
BLACK FAMILIES:
Black Caribbean and Black African people have a higher proportion of lone parent families. In 2012, just over half of all families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone parent families. This compared with only one in nine Asian families and just under a quarter for the population as a whole.
The high rate of female-headed lone parent black families has sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganization that can be traced back to slavery or more recently, to high rates of unemployment among black males. Under slavery, when couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. It is argued that this established a pattern of family life that persists today. It is also argued that male unemployment and poverty have meant that black men are less able to provide for their family, resulting in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown.
State criticisms of black families patterns from Mirza and Reynolds
Mirza (1997) argues that the higher rate of lone parent families among blacks is not the result of disorganization, but rather reflects the high value that black women place on independence. Additionally, Reynolds (1997) argues that the statistics are misleading, in that many apparently ‘lone’ parents are in stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships
Explain the family patterns of Asian families
ASIAN FAMILIES:
Asian households tend to be larger than other ethnic groups, at 4.4 persons per household for Bangladeshi families, 4.3 for Pakistani and 3 persons for Indian families. This can be compared with 2.3 for both Black Caribbean and White British households and 2.4 for the population as a whole. Such households are sometimes multi-generational and include three generations, often organised through a network of males and bound together by ideas of brotherhood and loyalty, but most are nuclear rather than extended families. Larger households are partly a result of the
younger age profile of British Asians, since a higher proportion are in the childbearing age groups compared with the population as a whole.
Additionally, larger Asian households also to some extent reflect the value placed on the extended family in Asian cultures
What does Ballard argue about asian families and extended families
However, practical considerations, such as the need for assistance when migrating to Britain are also important. Ballard (1982 and 1990) found that extended families provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 1950s and 60s. In this early period of migration, houses were often shared by extended families and whilst today most Asian households are nuclear, relatives often live nearby reflecting the importance of kinship networks. Today, Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus are still more likely than other ethnic groups to live in extended family units.
Furthermore Ballard (1990) found that whilst many marriages are largely arranged and are seen as a contract between two families, children today increasingly expect to have some say in their marriage partners and couples today expect more independence from their kin. Data collected in the Policy Studies Institute’s Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities (1997) found that divorce, single parents and smaller families were now found within the British Asian community, they were more likely than other ethnic groups to marry and marry earlier than their white peers and cohabitation, separation and divorce were relatively rare. There was also some evidence that many couples including those with children, still continue to live in the same house as the male’s parents.
what types of diversity do Rapoport and Rapoport (1982) identify today
- cultural diversity
- life-stage diversity
- organisational diversity
- generational diversity
- social-class diversity
Explain Rapoport and Rapoport (1982) type of diversity they identify
RAPOPORT and RAPOPORT (1982) see diversity as central today. They claim it is the norm and serves people’s needs, rather than causing family decline. They identify five types of diversity (CLOGS):
Cultural diversity: caused by migration - ethnic groups have different family structures, e.g. more children, larger families, multi-generational families etc.
Life-stage diversity: through an individual’s life course they are likely to experience a variety of different structures, e.g. childless couple, parents with young children, retired couples, widow etc.
Organisational diversity: different ways of organising the household, e.g. single or dual earners and/or joint or segregated conjugal roles etc.
Generational diversity: depending on the era in which an individual is raised, they may have different views towards different household structures: attitudes to cohabitation, divorce, SPFs, same-sex relationships etc.
Social class diversity: the income of a family can influence its structure, e.g. middle class women pursuing careers may choose to have children later, class differences in child-rearing practices etc.
What do Eversely and Bonnerjea (1982) link geographical location and local influences to family types
EVERSLEY and BONNERJEA (1982) also highlight how family types may also be linked to geographical location and local influences. They identify six different types of area which are connected to different types of family organisation:
The affluent South: more likely to have mobile two-parent nuclear families.
The ‘geriatric wards’: coastal areas which attract retired and elderly couples who may live some distance from relatives.
Older industrial areas: more likely to have traditional family structures and relationships and older populations.
Recently declined industrial areas: more likely to be found in the Midlands, have been prosperous but have recently declined. Young families often have moved there and have little support from extended kin.
Rural areas: families who work in agriculture and related areas of the economy and tend to be extended and traditional. However, many of these areas have been taken over by commuters.
Inner cities: often experience high levels of social deprivation and a larger turnover of inhabitants, many single person households and a higher proportion of migrants. There are also many single parent families and people are more likely to be isolated from kin.
What do sociologists argue family diversity and plurality
Despite increased family diversity and plurality many sociologists argue that there is a strong and powerful ideology which represents the nuclear family as the idealised norm and the typical family type. Politicians, media and advertising promote this view of the family, which Leach (1965) referred to as the ‘cereal packet image’ of the family. Oakley and Thorne (1992) are critical of this ideology and how the nuclear family has been elevated to a high status and glorified in society arguing that it falsifies reality and obscures the diversity and plurality of contemporary family life. They claim that the ideology of the nuclear family is misleading and stereotypical.
Some modernist social commentators suggest that the institution of marriage and by implication the family are under threat as a consequence of these trends. Sociologists have different views on these trends and the diversity that it brings to families and households, this largely reflects the theory and perspective of the sociologist:
State following trends which contribute family and household diversity and plurality
- increase in divorce
- secularisation
- cohabitation
- same sex couples
- increase in single parent families
- fewer people having children
- bi-nuclear family
- co-parenting
- reconstituted families increasing
- decline in marriage
Explain functionalism view on family diversity and plurality
Functionalism:
They have a preference for the nuclear family and place a high value on it. They see the nuclear family as uniquely suited to meeting the needs of modern society and are likely to consider other family types to be dysfunctional or deviant. Nevertheless, whilst functionalists acknowledge diverse family trends and structures they argue that the changes to the family have actually been minor and the basic features of family life remain remarkably unchanged.
CHESTER (1985) argues that the majority of people are not choosing to live in alternatives to the nuclear family on a long term basis, but it is a reflection of the life-cycle of the family which is fluid. He claims that most people experience the nuclear family experience at some part of their lives and aspire to it and that statistics on household composition are misleading as they only provide a snapshot picture of a single moment in time.
CHESTER notes that there has been some increased diversity, but argues that the only significant change has been the evolution of the traditional nuclear family into a neo-conventional nuclear family. This is composed of dual earners rather than the traditional division of labour between a male breadwinner and female homemaker. For CHESTER then, the extent and importance of family diversity has been exaggerated. He also observes that most diverse family structures actually conform to a modified version of the nuclear unit.
Explain the new right view on family diversity and plurality
New Right:
They adopt a conservative and anti-feminist perspective and are firmly opposed to family diversity. They hold the view that there is only one ideal/correct/normal/natural family type – the nuclear family. They support the conventional patriarchal nuclear family with the male as the breadwinner and the female in the mother/housewife role – which they see as natural. They see family diversity as a product of family breakdown which leads to a lack of discipline, educational failure, crime and a dependency culture. They are opposed to most of the changing family patterns that have emerged over more recent decades.
They are particularly critical of lone parent families and claim that the collapse of relationships between cohabiting couples is the main cause of an increase in lone parent families. BENSON (2006) analysed data on the parents of over 15,000 babies and found that over the first three years of a baby’s life, the rate of family breakdown was much higher among cohabiting couples: 20%, compared with only 6% among married couples. In the New Right view, only marriage, which requires a deliberate commitment, can provide a stable environment in which to bring up children.
New Right commentators and many Conservative politicians have used such evidence to support the view that both the family and society at large are ‘broken’. They regard many laws and policies as undermining the conventional nuclear family and argue that only a return to traditional values can prevent social disintegration
Explain the feminist perspective on family diversity and plurality
Feminism:
They see the conventional nuclear family as based on patriarchal oppression and the fundamental cause of gender inequality. They are critical of the New Right and OAKLEY (1997) believes their view of the family is a negative reaction against the feminist campaign for women’s equality. They see family diversity as a positive and liberating trend where individuals, particularly females are able to live in units which reflect their own individual choice. They like the changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation and divorce and the plurality of household types which are more common in contemporary Britain. They do not interpret these trends in a negative way or see them as evidence of a ‘supposed decline’ in the institution of marriage and the family.
How does the postmodernist view differ with other perspectives on family diversity
Unlike many modernists such as functionalists and the New Right who emphasise the dominance of the nuclear family, others such as postmodernists emphasise family diversity.
Postmodernists argue that greater diversity and choice brings with it advantages, such as it gives individuals greater freedom to plot their own life course – to choose the kind of family and personal relationships that meet their needs.
STACEY (1988) argues that greater freedom and choice has particularly benefitted women, who she regards as being the main agents of changes in the family. It has enabled them to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and to shape their family arrangements to meet their needs. However, many recognise that greater freedom of choice in relationships means a greater risk of instability
what is meant by a life course
Life course - life course means when an individual controls their own life choices an routes instead of following societal expectations
Why do post modernists argue we have entered a new stage in society and how does this relate to family diversity
Postmodernists argue that since the late (20th society has entered a new postmodern phase which is increasingly individualistic, fragmented and diverse and is characterised by rapid social change and less predictability. Postmodernists believe that today we have much greater choice about our lifestyles and personal relationships and this has increased family diversity, so much that we can no longer talk about a single, stable, dominant family type.
What do Morgan (2011) argue about this changes and about generalisations made about the family
Reflecting these changes, MORGAN (2011) argues that it is pointless making large scale generalisations about ‘the family’ as if it were a single thing. Rather, a family is simply whatever arrangements those involved choose to call their family. He prefers the concept of family practices, rather than family structure, as a way of describing how we construct our life course and relationships.
In his view, families are not concrete ‘things’ or structures – they are simply what people actually do - the routine actions through which we create our sense of ‘being a family member’, such as feeding the children or doing the DIY.
However, he does recognise that while life course and family practices are the actions of individuals, they take place in the context of wider social structures and norms which influence the beliefs we have about our rights, responsibilities and obligations within the family. These may still exert an influence over family members’ expectations and actions.
For example, gender norms and differences in job opportunities and social policy may dictate that males are the main breadwinners and this may influence individuals’ expectations of each other within the family.
What is meant by family practices according to Morgan (2011)
Family practices describe how we construct out life course and relationships as Morgan believes families are not ‘concrete’ or structures - families are routine actions which we practice to make us feel the sense of us being a family member
How do sociologists explore family lives and practices
From this perspective, sociologists should focus their attention on how people create their own diverse family lives and practices. One way of exploring this is through life course analysis. This usually involves in-depth unstructured interviews with family members to explore the meanings and understand the choices people make about family life and relationships.
Sociologists such as HAREVEN (1978) use life course analysis to understand family life. This approach starts from the idea that there is flexibility and variation in people’s family lives – in the choices and decisions they make and in the timing and sequence of the events and turning points in their lives. Individuals have greater freedom to plot their own life course, for example, these might include the decision if and when to have a baby, whether to come out as gay, to leave a relationship, to move into sheltered accommodation etc.
What do Giddens and Beck argue in relation to an individualisation thesis?
Whilst not accepting everything postmodernists say about the nature of society today, GIDDENS and BECK have been influenced by postmodernist ideas. They explore the effects of increasing individual choice upon families and relationships. Their views have become known as the individualisation thesis. The thesis argues that in the past, people’s lives were defined by fixed roles that largely prevented people from choosing their own life course.
For example, everyone was expected to marry and take up their appropriate gender role. By contrast, individuals in today have fewer such certainties or fixed roles to follow. Therefore, we have become dis-embedded from traditional roles and structures, leaving us with more freedom to choose how we lead our lives.
As BECK (1992) puts it, the ‘standard biography’ or life course that people followed in the past has been replaced by the ‘do-it-yourself biography’ that individuals today must construct for themselves – this has huge implications for family relationships and family diversity
contrast a ‘standard’ to a ‘do-it-yourself biography’
the standard biography in the post would be doing what society expected of you e.g Marry, have the traditional family whereas ‘do-it-yourself’ means individuals must choose their own life course and goals
What gidden argue about the recent decades the family and marriage have been transformed
GIDDENS (1992) argues that in recent decades the family and marriage have been transformed by greater choice (largely a consequence of improved contraception, allowing sex and intimacy rather than reproduction to become the main reason for a relationship’s existence) and equality (which women have gained because of feminism and greater opportunities in education and work).
He sees the ‘pure relationship’ as typical of late modern society, which is no longer held together by norms, religion and laws. Its key feature is that it exists solely to satisfy each partner’s needs and therefore is likely to survive only so long as both partners think it is in their own interest to do so.
Therefore, individuals are free to choose to enter and leave relationships as they see fit. Relationships become a part of the process of the individual’s self-discovery or self-identity: trying different relationships becomes a way of establishing ‘who we are’. He argues that in this way, the ‘pure relationship’ has modelled itself on same-sex relationships which have historically been less bound by tradition and more democratic.
However, GIDDENS recognises that with more choice, personal relationships inevitably become less stable and in turn produce greater family diversity. Again this models same-sex relationships, where families have traditionally been actively created in diverse ways to serve individual needs.
What does Beck argue about risk society
Reflecting the views central to the individualisation thesis, BECK (1992) argues that we now live in a ‘risk’ society where tradition has less influence on people’s lives and they have more choice. Today’s risks contrast to earlier times when roles were more fixed and people had less choice in their lives. For example, people were expected to marry, to have children, to have clear gender roles, to stay together etc. Although this traditional picture of family life was unequal, it provided a clear, stable and predictable basis for family life by defining each member’s role and responsibilities.
BECK believes that the traditional patriarchal family has been undermined by greater gender equality and individualism. As a result contemporary families are less likely to conform to any norm, but vary in relation to the wishes and expectations of their members. He calls this the negotiated family.
However, whilst more equal it is less stable. This is because individuals are free to leave if their needs are not met – again, producing greater family diversity.
In today’s uncertain society, people turn to the family in the hope of finding security, however BECK argues that family relationships are themselves now subject to greater risk and uncertainty than ever before. For this reason BECK describes the family as a ‘zombie category’: it appears to be alive, but in reality is dead. People want it to be the haven of security in an unsecure world, but today’s family cannot provide this because of its instability
state criticisms of postmodernists and individualisation thesis
- even with greater choice and individualism, there is great uncertainty in family relationships as individuals have the choice to leave and there isn’t exactly ‘stability’ in families and might not be practical for most people as some people may not want this variety of choice or like tradition
- Thesis assumes that most people have this choice to do what they want without barriers which is not exactly true for most people. Also, people who may stay in unhappy toxic relationships might not have choice or inclination to leave e.g Trauma, Abuse
- economic reasons, people may have the money to follow their own decisions/life route
- Postmodernists/individualists may be based on the idea that we live in an inclusive utopia, where everyone can follow their own decisions / life route
What sociologists take a personal life approach and why?
Sociologists who take a personal life perspective, such as SMART (2007) and MAY (2013) agree that there is now greater family diversity, but they disagree with BECK and GIDDENS’ explanation of it, making many criticisms of the individualisation thesis:
- They believe the thesis exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships - traditional norms still prevail and impact on many people.
- Secondly, they claim the thesis wrongly sees people as dis-embedded, ‘free-floating’, independent individuals. It ignores the fact that decisions and choices about personal relationships are made within a social context.
- The thesis ignores the importance of structural factors such as social class inequalities and patriarchal gender norms in limiting and shaping relationship choices.
MAY claims that their view is ‘an idealised version of a white middle-class man’ – they ignore the fact that not everyone has the same ability as this privileged group to exercise choice about relationships.
Explain connectedness Thesis
Connectedness Thesis:
Reflecting these criticisms, sociologists from the personal life perspective propose an alternative to the individualisation thesis. SMART calls this the ‘connectedness thesis’. Rather than seeing us as dis-embedded individuals with limitless choice about personal relationships, she argues that we are fundamentally social beings whose choices are always made ‘within a web of connectedness’.
According to the thesis, we live within networks of existing relationships and interwoven personal histories and these strongly influence our range of options and choices in relationships. As SMART states, ‘where lives have become interwoven and embedded, it becomes impossible for relationships to simply end because it is no longer a ‘pure relationship’. For example, parents who separate remain linked by their children, often against their wishes.
Unlike BECK and GIDDENS who claimed that there has been a disappearance or weakening of the structures of class, gender and family, the connectedness thesis emphasises the role of the class and gender structures in which we are embedded – which limit our choices about the kinds of relationships, identities and families we can create for ourselves.
For example: after a divorce, gender norms generally dictate that women should have custody of the children, which may limit their opportunity to form new relationships. By contrast, men are free to start new relationships and second families; they are generally better paid than women and this gives them greater freedom and choice in relationships. Furthermore, the relative powerlessness of women and children as compared to men means that they often lack freedom to choose and so for example, may remain trapped in abusive relationships. MAY argues that these structures are not disappearing, they are simply being re-shaped – therefore, women do not ‘have it all.’
Therefore, although there is a trend towards greater diversity and choice, the personal life perspective emphasises the continuing importance of structural factors such as patriarchy and class inequality in restricting people’s choices and shaping their lives
What key factors directly affect the size of a country’s population
births - how many babies are born
deaths - how many people die
Immigration - how many people enter the country from elsewhere
Emigration - how many people leave the country to live elsewhere
what factors cause an increase in the population
- births
- immigration
what factors cause a decrease in the population
- deaths
- emigration
How do sociologists measure the birth rate to measure births
Sociologists use the concept of birth rate to measure births. The birth rate is defined as the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year. Despite a few fluctuations (baby booms), there had been a long-term decline in the birth rate from 1900 (28.7) until 2001. The birth rate has been increasing since this year and peaked in 2012 (12.8), the highest since 1971. By 2014 it had fallen to 12.2.
What factors determine the birth rate?
The factors determining the birth rate is:
- The proportion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44)
- How fertile they are – that is, how many children they have. The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years. Despite this rising since 2001 to 1.94 in 2012 from an all-time low of 1.63, it is still far lower than its peak of 2.95 children in 1964 (the 1960s baby boom). In 2014 it was 1.83.
These changes in fertility and birth rates reflect the fact that (a) more UK born women are remaining childless than in the past,
(b) women are postponing having children – the average age for giving birth is now 30 and fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s are on the increase - nevertheless they have fewer fertile years remaining and so produce fewer children and
(c) the proportion of women of childbearing age born outside of the UK.
reasons for the decline in the birth rate (1900-2001)
Sociologists have identified a number of social, economic, cultural, legal, political and technological reasons for the long-term decline in the birth rate since 1900.
- changes in the position of women
- decline in the infant mortality rate
- children have become an economic liability
- child centeredness
Explain the reason of changes in the position of women contributing to the decline in the birth rate
CHANGES IN THE POSITION OF WOMEN:
- women are putting education/careers first meaning they are settling down at a later age - it is much easier to manage a career with less children rather than seven children
- changing social attitudes - women are no longer expected to have children - they are no longer stigmatised due to a changing society
- individualism - having a child is a reflection of a choice
- improvements in healthcare/technology advancement e.g. contraception - women are more in control of their family - the size, the structure, and the timing of it
- Secularisation - changing role and expectation of women - if a women has an abortion - they are able to access a legal extermination without stigma
Explain the reasons for the decline in the infant mortality rate
DECLINE IN THE INFANT MORTALITY RATE:
- medical / technological advancement - improvements in healthcare + medicine - women today do not have to have as many children to ensure the survival a few in the Uk compared to the past
- medical advancement = there are interventions during birth / they are monitored throughout their pregnancy e.g pre-natal care
- women health - public health knowledge for pregnancy - infant mortality decreases as society is much more accommodating for pregnant women in society
- better knowledge of infant health / childcare
- immunisation/vaccine programs have cut the infant mortality rate
Explain the reason of children becoming an economic liability in relation to decline in the birth rate
CHILDREN HAVE BECOME AN ECONOMIC LIABLITY -
- Expensive - (children are no longer economic assets) - people use to have lots of children to bring an income for the household. Today people argue children are more of a liability for the costs of bringing up children - can be a huge financial drain on a household e.g university fees
Explain the reason of child centeredness in relation to the decline in the birth rate
CHILD CENTREDNESS:
If you have less children - you can provide a more great childhood for their children - parents can lavish spoil them and spend their finance on them - we live in a child centred/orientated world - more focused on children’s needs
Has there been a increase in births?
As a result of the above factors, birth rates, fertility rates and family sizes have fallen
over the last century. However there has been a slight increase in births since 2001. The main factor accounting for this is the increase in immigration. On average, mothers from outside of the UK have a higher fertility rate. Babies born to mothers from outside the
UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011.
Explain changes in the number of babies born affecting several aspects of society including the family, the dependency ratio and public service and policies
Family - smaller families have become more of the norm and this reflects changes in gender roles. Smaller families have led to dual career couples becoming more of the norm (exception of migrant families) - easier to have a more demanding career than a family
= due to neo-conventional couples which is a couple that both work
Dependency ratio - (relationship between size of the working population (economically active) and the non-working population (economically in-active). The population of the UK most likely are the inactive population e.g elderly, children and unemployed
The reduction in the number of children reduces the burden of dependency of the working population in the short term but in the longer term, there are fewer workers who are economically active - the workers of the future (there are less)
- Public services and policies - fewer maternity units and schools will be required and a reduction in the birth rate will have an impact on the type of housing we require in the future (rethink the average family size) and schools could close
Explain deaths in the uk
In the UK the overall number of deaths has remained fairly stable since 1900, at round about 600 000 per year. However, there have been some important fluctuations such as the two world wars and the flu epidemic of 1918, 2019 coronavirus pandemic. However, the death rate has fallen since 1900. The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year. In 1900 the death rate was 19 whereas by 2012 it had dramatically fallen to 8.9.
State reasons for the decline in the death rate
- Decline in deaths from infectious diseases
- Medical improvements
- Improved nutrition
- Smoking and diet
- public health measures and environmental improvements
- other social changes
Explain the reason of the decline in deaths from infectious diseases
DECLINE IN THE DEATHS FROM INFECTIOUS DISEASES:
- fall in death from diseases such as diphtheria (influenza), scarlet fever, small pox, measles and TB (tuberculosis).
- the population has developed some natural resistance and some diseases have become virulent
- from the 1950s, the emergence of diseases of affluence e.g. heart disease, cancer reflecting people’s standard of living - smoking seen as a ‘affluent’ hobby but causes lung cancer
Explain medical improvements contributing to the decline in the death rate
MEDICAL IMPROVEMENTS:
- since the setting up of the NHS in 1948, the population have had free access to free healthcare
- introduction of antibiotics, wide spread immunisation programs (vaccination), blood transfusion, advanced surgical innovations, improved medicines and higher standards of midwifery and maternity services etc have all contributed to a fall in the death rate
Explain improved nutrition contributing to the decline in the death rate
IMPROVED NUTRITITION:
M’keown (1972) - argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to a half in reduction of death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths in TB.
Better nutrition increases resistance to infection and increases the survival chances of those who did become affected
Criticism: critics argue that he doesn’t explain what females who often receive a smaller share of the family food supply live longer than males / particularly in poorer families
Explain the smoking and diet contributing to the decline in the death rate
SMOKING AND DIET:
Sociologist Harper (2013) claims that the greater fall in death rates in recent decades has not come from medical improvements but simply in a reduction in the number of people smoking
- In the 21st century, obesity has replaced smoking as a the new lifestyle epidemic/deaths from obesity have been kept low as a result of medication and drug therapy as we are moving towards an ‘almost American culture’
Explain public health measures and environmental improvements contributing to the decline in the death rate
PUBLIC HEALTH MEASURES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS:
- In the 20th century, more laws have been introduced leading to a range of improvements in public health and the equality of the environment
- not allowed to smoke in buildings/public places (banned)
- increasing the age of when you can smoke / how smoking is advertised and sold - must have health warnings
- promotion of health and fitness in schools
- improvement in sewage disposal
- purer drinking water
- clear air acts - reduced air pollution
- paris agreement / cop 26 climate change
Explain other social changes contributing to the decline in the death rate
OTHER SOCIAL CHANGES:
- the decline of dangerous manual occupations e.g mining
- smaller families reduce the rate of transmission of infection
- not everybody but more people are more health conscious in relation to both physical and mental health - society is much more aware in risk
- change in leisure - increasingly physical activities become more of leisure activity rather than an activity e.g. cycling - society has become more activity orientated
Explain life expectancy
Life expectancy:
As death rates have fallen, so life expectancy has increased. For example: Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50 and females until 57, whereas males born in England in 2013 can expect to live for 90.7 years and females for 94 years. In 2012 average life expectancy has increased to 78.8 years for males and 82.8 years for females.
To put the improvement of life expectancy into perspective, a newborn baby today has a better chance of reaching its 65th birthday than a baby born in 1900 had of reaching its 1st birthday! If the trend to greater longevity (long lifespan) continues, HARPER (2012) predicts that we will soon achieve ‘radical longevity’, with many more centenarians (people aged over 100). Currently there are approximately 10,000 in the UK; by 2100 these are projected to be one million.
despite the overall reduction in the death rate and the increase in life expectancy over the last 100 years, there are still important class, gender, region and ethnic differences
State these reasons
- women generally live longer than men (although the gap has narrowed)
- those living in the north and in Scotland, have a lower life expectancy compared to the south
- those working in a managerial and professional of occupations are 3 times more likely to live past the age of 65 than those working in a unskilled, working class job
- walker (2011) states those living in the poorest sections of England die on average seven years earlier than those living in the richest
What is the average age of the Uk population?
The average age of the UK population is rising. In 1911 it was 25, in 2013 it was 40.3 and by 2037 it is projected to reach 42.8. There are fewer younger and more elderly people in the population. In 2011 there were 9.2 million people over the age of 65 (compared to 3.5 million children under 5) making up 16.4% of the total population of England and Wales - that is 1 in 6 of the population is 65+. The number of people aged 65+ equalled the number of U15s for the first time ever in 2014. On current projections by 2041 there will be as many 78 year olds as 5 year olds.
What 3 factors has contributed to the ageing population?
The ageing population is a result of the following 3 factors:
Increasing life expectancy: people are living longer into old age
Declining infant mortality: nowadays very few infants die early in life
Declining fertility: fewer young people are born in comparison to the number of older people in the population.
state the affects of an ageing population
- public services
- one-person pensioner households
- the dependency ratio
- policy implications
- ageism
Explain the effect of an ageing population on public services
PUBLIC SERVICES:
- older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care
- In addition, to increase expenditure on health care an ageing population may also impact on housing, transport and other services which can cost more
Explain the effect of an ageing population on one person pensioner households
ONE-PERSON PENSIONER HOUSEHOLDS:
- number of pensioners living alone has increased and one person pensioner households now account for 1 in 8 households (most of these households are females)
- among the over, 75+ there are twice as many women than men (‘feminisation of later life’)
Explain the effect of an ageing population on the dependency ratio
DEPENDENCY RATIO:
- As part of the economically dependent group, the retired have to be provided for through taxation to fund pensions and healthcare / as the number of retired people increases which increases the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population
- In 2015, there were 3.2 people of working age for every 1 pensioner and this ratio is expected to fall to 2.8 by 2033 - impact of the ageing population. Reflecting this, the retirement age has increased and is likely to do so again
- From 2026, both men and women will have to wait until they are 67 to access their state pension
Explain the effect of an ageing population on policy implications
POLICY IMPLICATIONS:
- tax might have to increase to support an ageing population
- plan for more changes in houses, shelter accommodations and nursing homes
- transport implications
- funding leisure for the elderly
- less specialists with the medical profession on children (paediatrics) need more specialists for elderly care
- more research on dementia - expansion in areas such as that
Explain the effect of an ageing population on ageism
AGEISM:
- This can be seen in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare - older people may want to still work
- The discourse (way we think and speak) about old age and ageing constructs it as a problem - more negative
- many sociologists argue that ageism is the result of structured dependency. This is where the ‘elderly’ are excluded from paid work and forcing them into a state of economic dependency
- Philipson (1982) - The old of no use to capitalism as they are no longer productive and the state are therefore unwilling to support them adequately
What does Pilcher argue about the ageing population
PILCHER (1995) argues that inequalities such as class and gender remain important. Many of these are related to the individual’s previous occupational position.
For example: The middle class have better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries. Poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy and suffer more infirmity (making it difficult to maintain a youthful self-identity). Furthermore, women’s lower earnings and career breaks as carers mean lower pensions.
Postmodernists are criticised for understating the importance of such inequalities. These are related to the wider structure of society and they play a major part in shaping the experience of old age, often restricting the freedom of the elderly to choose an identity through their consumption.
Older people also face discrimination that limits their choices: Age Concern (2004) found more people reported age discrimination than any other form.
What is the post-modernist view on ageism / ageing population
POST-MODRNIST ON AGEISM/ AGEING POPULATION
- PMs argue that the fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down which gives individuals greater choice
- we can all now define ourselves and construct out identities by what they do and consume
- This also applies to the old and elderly
- To PMs age is a social construct as older people use goods and services to create new identities e.g. facial and hair products, anti-ageing cosmetic surgery. PM focused on the fluid nation of society and individualism
