final

Question 1

how do prokaryotes conserve energy

Answer 1

-downregulate the transcription of mRNA by RNA polymerase

Question 2

positive regulation

Answer 2

when a protein binds to a DNA sequence and activates transcription

Question 3

what kind of sugar is lactose

Answer 3

disacchride of glucose and galactose connected by beta linkages

Question 4

what are the three enzymes required for lactose digestion

Answer 4

• beta galactoside premease
• beta galactosidase
• beta galactoside acytltransferase

Question 5

inducers

Answer 5

compounds that stimulate the production of proteins. These proteins are called inducible proteins

Question 6

constitutitive proteins

Answer 6

proteins that are always made

Question 7

sigma factors

Answer 7

bind to RNA polymerase and direct it to bind to a specific class of promoters (the operons of eukaryotes)

Question 8

lytic cycle

Answer 8

early stage proteins shut down host transcription and digest host chromosomes (nuclease) to obtain nucleotides

Question 9

lysogenic cycle

Answer 9

incorporates itself into host DNA to become a prophage.

Question 10

how does Lamda work

Answer 10

it is a lysogenic cell that has two regulatory proteins cI and Cro. cI represses the lytic cycle.

Question 11

describe how HIV works

Answer 11

enters cell and makes two cDNA copies using its RNA template. This is then incorporated into the hosts genome by the enzyme intergrase creating a provirus. Under normal circumstances this provirus is not aloud to replicate but if it manages to make a protein (tat) then it will be alble to.

Question 12

epigenetics

Answer 12

the study of how genes change without a subsquent change in DNA. occurs by DNA methylation or chromosomal protein alteration

Question 13

describe the process of methylation

Answer 13

DNA methyltransferase adds methyl groups to cytosine. Usually a C that is adjacent to a G in mammals. These changes are heritable. These methyl groups attrach repressor proteins to bind to them.

Question 14

x chromosome inactivation

Answer 14

a heterochromatin that can only code for a protein (Xist, a type of RNAi) which then binds to the chromosome and inactivates it. Usually the homologous chromosome of a heterochromatin is highly active.

Question 15

siRNA

Answer 15

are the same as miRNA expect that they are derived from a double stranded RNA.

Question 16

how can translation be regulated

Answer 16

• siRNA and miRNA
• modify the GTP cap on the 5’ end. only modified GTP caps can be translated
• ubiquitin

Question 17

riboswitch

Answer 17

when more of an enzyme is required you dont need to increase the amount of mRNA. You bind a protein to a riboswitch and this causes the repressor protein to detach.

Question 18

ubquitin

Answer 18

a chain of 76 amino acids that bind to a lucine and bind to a protein which then digests the protein.

Question 19

open reading frames

Answer 19

segements of coding DNA. Can be identified by a start and stop codone.

Question 20

compositie transposons

Answer 20

two transposons that are “sandwitching” a sequence of DNA.

Question 21

where are the alpha and beta units of the globin gene located.

Answer 21

alpha is on chromosome 16 and beta is on chromosome 11

Question 22

halotype

Answer 22

a chromosome with a set of SNPs

Question 23

proteome

Answer 23

all the proteins that a organism makes a particular time in a particular controlled environment.

Question 24

bioremediation

Answer 24

the use of micro-organisms to clean up pollutants

Question 25

recombinant DNA

Answer 25

DNA that has come from atleast two different sources.

Question 26

transformation

Answer 26

inserting recombinant DNA into an organism other then an animal. If it is put into an animal it is called transfection.

Question 27

transgenic

Answer 27

a cell that contains recombinant DNA. The gene that was inserted is a transgene

Question 28

what is cDNA

Answer 28

DNA that has been made from a mRNA strand using reverse transcriptase. Therefore no introns. It also doesnt include the whole genome.

Question 29

what is required for PCR

Answer 29

atleast 2 primers

Question 30

what happens when you have no glucose and alot of lactose

Answer 30

cAMP is produced and binds to the catabolite activater protein (CAP) on the lac operon and increases rate of transcription.

Question 31

major public concerns of GMOs

Answer 31

unnatural
unsafe
bad for the enviornment

Question 32

autocrine

Answer 32

self signaling

Question 33

paracrine

Answer 33

signal near by cells

Question 34

pyrophosphate

Answer 34

two phosphates attached to each other

Question 35

cAMP target sites

Answer 35

gated ion channels and protein kinases

Question 36

protein phosphatase

Answer 36

removes a phosphate group from protein kinases

Question 37

what breaks down acetylcholine

Answer 37

cholinesterase

Question 38

what kind of receptor does epi bind to

Answer 38

g linked protein receptor

Question 39

glycogen phosphoralase

Answer 39

is stored in the cytoplasm of liver cells and it breaks down glycogen in the presence of epi. Epi binds to a G protein which has a bunch of adenlyl cyclase enzymes. They make a bunch of cAMP(broken down by phosphodiesterase) which acts as second messenger by binding to glycogen phosphoralase thereby activating it and at the same time inhibiting glycogen synthase(by adding a phosphate to it)

Question 40

how is Nitric oxide (NO) made

Answer 40

from arginine via NO synthase which is activated by intracellular Ca2+. NO then activates guanylyl cyclase which makes cGMP

Question 41

how does the sense of odor work

Answer 41

a odor molecule binds to a G protein receptor causing the production of cAMP which then activates gated ion channels allowing the influx of calcium and sodium which leads to the neuron firing an action potential.