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A&P > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Skeletal system support

A

structural framework for attachment of skeletal muscles

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2
Q

Tendons

A

CT, dense regular, skeletal muscle to bone

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3
Q

Ligaments

A

CT, dense regular, holds skeletal muscle together

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4
Q

Skeletal system protection

A

skull to protect brain, vertebrae to protect spinal chord

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5
Q

Skeletal system assistance in movement

A

when skeletal muscle contracts, it shortens, puts tension on the tendon of insertion to move that part of the skeletal system

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6
Q

Skeletal system mineral homeostasis

A

stores & releases minerals (calcium & phosphate)

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7
Q

Skeletal system site of blood cell production

A

CT called red bone marrow

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8
Q

Red bone marrow

A

produces all types of blood cells, process called hemopoiesis
makes RBC, WBC, platelets

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9
Q

Skeletal system triglyceride storage

A

yellow (adipose tissue) bone marrow

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10
Q

Diaphysis

A

middle section of long bone

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11
Q

Epiphysis

A

proximal & distal end of long bone
spongey bone internally
red bone marrow fills the spongey bone

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12
Q

Metaphysis

A

between diaphysis & epiphysis

epiphyseal plate is inside the metaphysis

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13
Q

Epiphyseal plate

A

made with hyaline cartilage
if plate converts to bone tissue (osstifies), renamed epiphyseal line
(if present, no further growth in height)

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14
Q

Articular cartilage

A

area of joint & movement, hyaline cartilage in most areas

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15
Q

Periosteum

A

CT that covers the bone (except areas of articular cartilage)

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16
Q

Periosteum function

A 
protects the bone
fracture repair
nourish the bone
growth in width of bone
area where ligament & tendon connect to bone > fibrous layer of periosteum
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17
Q

Medullary “cavity”

A

hollow space within diaphysis (in adults this contains yellow bone marrow)
cavity will decrease weight of bone structure

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18
Q

Endosteum

A

thin membrane that lines medullary cavity, important for growth in width

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19
Q

What % of bone is water?

A

15%

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20
Q

Bone tissue histology: collagen fibers

A

protein, gives flexibility to to bone structure

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21
Q

Recalcification

A 
calcium phosphate +
calcium hydroxide =
formation of crystals of hydroxy apatite =
insoluble (strength & hardness to bone =
floride
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22
Q

% of bone that is crystalized mineral sacts

A

55%

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23
Q

Calcium phosphate

A

most abundant mineral salt

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24
Q

4 types of cells in bones

A
  1. osteoprogenitor cells
  2. osteoblast
  3. osteocyte
  4. osteoclast
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25
Q

Osteoprogenitor cells

A

stem cells, divides and gives rise to osteoblast

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26
Q

Osteoblast

A

immature cells, builds bone tissue

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27
Q

Osteocyte

A

mature cells, maintaining bone tissue

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28
Q

Osteoclast

A

from several white blood cells, this cell produces both enzymes and acid to break down bone

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29
Q

Mesenchyme cells

A

stem cells, can give rise to all different types of CT

differentiates from from osteoprogenitor cells

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30
Q

Where are osteoprogenitor cells located?

A
  1. inner osteogenic layer of periosteum
  2. endosteum: lines medullary cavity
  3. canals within compact bone that contain blood vessel
  4. red bone marrow, between areas of spongey bone
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31
Q

Osteoclast is derived from…

A

white blood cells

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32
Q

Osteoclast is important for reabsorption…

A

the breakdown of bone matrix which liberates minerals & for remodeling bone

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33
Q

Reasons for remodeling bone/resorption

A
  1. normal development
  2. growth
  3. maintenance
  4. repair
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34
Q

How will the osteoclast naturally break down extracellular matrix?

A
  1. enzymes
  2. acids
  3. control and regulation of hormones
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35
Q

Break down by enzymes

A

digest the organic collagen protein, gives bone flexibility

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36
Q

Break down by acid

A

removes minerals, bones become flexible

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37
Q

Break down by control/hormones

A

osteoclast respond to hormones to maintain calcium levels

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38
Q

Calcitonin hormone is made by

A

thyroid gland

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39
Q

Calcitonin impact on osteoclast

A

inhibit osteoclast (resorption)

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40
Q

Calcitonin result

A

no calcium to enter blood stream, decrease in blood stream

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41
Q

Parathyroid hormone is made by

A

parathyroid gland

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42
Q

Parathyroid impact on osteoclast

A

stimulates osteoclast

promotes bone resorption

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43
Q

Parathyroid hormone result

A

calcium released by bone resorption, increase in blood calcium

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44
Q

2 types of bone tissue & %

A

compact 80%

spongy 20%

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45
Q

Compact bone unit

A

osteon

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46
Q

Spongy bone unit

A

trabeculae

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47
Q

Different zones in the area of epiphyseal plate

A
  1. zone of resting cartilage
  2. zone of proliferating cartilage
  3. zone of hypotrophic cartilage
  4. zone of calcified cartilage
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48
Q

Proliferating

A

to divide

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49
Q

Hypotrophy

A

enlarge/increase in size

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50
Q

Zone of resting cartilage

A

anchors hyaline cartilage to epiphyseal plate

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51
Q

Zone of calcified cartilage

A

transitions into bone

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52
Q

What does it mean to remodel the bone?

A

replaces older bone tissue with newer bone tissue that is more resistant to fractures/breaks

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53
Q

Bone resorption

A

breaking down bone, low osteoblast & high osteoclast

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54
Q

Bone deposition

A

making new bone, high osteoblast & low osteoclast

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55
Q

Factors affecting bone growth and remodeling

A
  1. minerals
  2. vitamins
  3. hormones
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56
Q

Minerals needed for bone growth and remodeling / process

A

calcium and phosphate

osteoclasts make collagen fibers, calcifies

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57
Q

Vitamins needed for bone growth and remodeling

A

A, C, D, K & B12

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58
Q

Vitamin A needed for

A

increasing osteoblasts activity

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59
Q

Vitamin C needed for

A

increasing protein synthesis for collagen and increasing osteoblast activity for protein

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60
Q

Vitamin D needed for

A

absorbing calcium from our diet

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61
Q

Vitamin K & B12 needed for

A

increasing protein synthesis

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62
Q

Study bone growth timeline in notes

A

:)

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63
Q

As osteocblasts increases and osteoclasts decreases,

A

there is an increase in testosterone/estrogen

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64
Q

When does estrogen decrease?

A

at and after menopause

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65
Q

IGF is made by

A

liver

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66
Q

Interstitial IGF

A

targets zone 2

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67
Q

Appositional IGF

A

increases osteogenic cell layer of periosteum

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68
Q

hGH

A

human growth hormone

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69
Q

hGH is made by

A

pituitary gland

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70
Q

Major role of hGH

A

increases production of insulin

71
Q

Before puberty, if high hGH levels

A

results in gigantism

72
Q

Before puberty, if low hGH levels

A

results in dwarfism

73
Q

Achondroplasia

A

cartilage cells in zone 2 do not grow fast enough and long bones shorten prematurely

74
Q

What happens to hormones at puberty?

A

secretion of reproductive hormones
increase in estrogen for females, testosterone for men
increase in osteoblast activity & decrease in osteoclast activity

75
Q

What causes growth spurts?

A

increase in osteoblast activity and decrease in osteoclast activity

76
Q

What stops growth in height?

A

estrogen and testosterone target epiphyseal plate in zone 2 and prevents proliferation of cartilage cells. eventually the epiphyseal plate will transition into epiphyseal line

77
Q

Estrogen before menopause

A

high levels, high osteoblast, low osteoclast

78
Q

Estrogen after menopause

A

low levels, low osteoblast, high osteoclast

79
Q

Fracture

A

break in bone

80
Q

Open fracture

A

compound, breaks the skin

81
Q

Closed fracture

A

simple, skin is not broken

82
Q

Greenstick fracture

A

occurs only in children, bone is still flexible and not fully calcified

83
Q

Stress fracture

A

little breaks within the bone

84
Q

Bone repair: reactive phase and timeline

A

formation of fracture hematoma, within 6-8 hours and lasts several weeks

85
Q

Bone repair: reparative phase A and timeline

A

fibrocartilaginous callus formation, 1 month

86
Q

Bone repair: reparative phase B and timeline

A

bony callus formation, blood supply re-established, brings in bone cells and makes bone tissue, 3-4 months

87
Q

Bone repair: bone remodeling phase

A

spongy bone to compact bone

88
Q

Osteoporosis

A

bone resorption is greater than bone formation

89
Q

Osteoporosis treatment

A

increase calcium in diet, increase in vitD levels, exercise with weights

90
Q

Rickets

A

disease of children’s bones, bones become soft and rubbery

91
Q

Rickets cause

A

vitD deficiency or lack of calcium

92
Q

Osteomalacia

A

new bone fails to ossify

93
Q

Osteomalacia treatment

A

increase in vitD, calcium

94
Q

Functions of skeletal muscle tissue

A
  1. producing motion
  2. stabilizing body body position
  3. storing and moving substances within the body
95
Q

Agonist

A

contracting

96
Q

Antagonist

A

relaxing or stretching

97
Q

Organization of skeletal muscle

A
  1. whole skeletal muscle
  2. facicles
  3. muscle fiber (cell)
  4. myofibrils
98
Q

Whole skeletal muscle

A

ct covering: epimysium all around the muscle

inside are lots of facicles

99
Q

Facicles

A

ct covering: perimysium

inside are lots of muscle fibers (cells

100
Q

Muscle fiber

A

ct covering: endomysium

inside are lots of microfibrils

101
Q

Microfibrils

A

no ct covering, inside are lots of thick and thin filaments

102
Q

Connective tissue: fascia

A

holds muscle with similar movements together, allows free movement of muscle

103
Q

3 layers of fascia

A
  1. epimysium
  2. perimysium
  3. endomysium
104
Q

Somatic neurons…

A

make & release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACH)

105
Q

Muscle atrophy

A

wasting away of muscle, decrease in size due to decrease in # of microfibrils inside cell

106
Q

Denervation atrophy

A

nerve supply is damaged or cut

107
Q

Sarcolema

A

plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fiber cell (everything around the cell)

108
Q

Transverse tubules

A

part of the plasma membrane that extends into the interior of the cell, surrounds microfibrils

109
Q

Sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm of muscle fiber cell
contains glycogen
contains myoglobin

110
Q

Myoglobin

A

inside sarcoplasm, binds O2 inside the muscle cell

111
Q

Sarcoplasm?? formula

A

ATP + H2O -> (ATPase, hydrolysis) -> ADP + P + E2

112
Q

Microfibrils contain

A

contractile elements called filaments

113
Q

Thick filament

A

made of myosin protein

114
Q

Thin filament and regulatory proteins

A

made of actin
troponin
tropomyosin

115
Q

Function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

A
  1. store ca2+ ions when muscle is relaxed

2. releases ca2+ into the sarcoplasm for muscle contraction

116
Q

What causes the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

a muscle action potential travels along the sarcolemma and triggers the release of calcium from the SR by opening the calcium release channel (CRC)

117
Q

Troponin function

A

binds ca2+

118
Q

Tropomyosin function

A

blocks actin so it cannot bind to myosin when muscle is relaxed and no ca2+ available

119
Q

Structural protein

A

titan (coli) and dystrophin

120
Q

Dystrophin

A

links to sarcolemma to strengthen it, transmits tension generated by sarcomere to tendon

121
Q

Ca2+ active transport pump runs on

A

on ATP, all the time

122
Q

Ca2+ release channel closed

A

relaxed

123
Q

Ca2+ release channel opened

A

contraction

124
Q

What opens calcium release channel?

A

action potential goes in sarcoplasm, lands in troponin

125
Q

Where is the actin binding site?

A

myosin head

126
Q

Thin filament made of

A

an intertwinement of actin, troponin, tropomyosin

127
Q

Motor protein

A

moves a structure in the skeletal muscle fiber (cell)

128
Q

Myosin does what

A

moves a structure in the skeletal muscle fiber (cell)
moves the thin filament toward center of sarcomere
converts chemical energy in ATP to the mechanical energy of motion

129
Q

Contraction cycle

A
  1. ATP hydrolysis
  2. attachment of myosin to actin to form cross-bridge
  3. power stroke
  4. detachment of myosin from actin
130
Q

ATP hydrolysis

A

myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and become reoriented and energized

131
Q

What needs to be present at attachment of myosin to actin to form cross bridge?

A

calcium

132
Q

Power stroke

A

thick filament physically moves thin filament toward sarcomere
myosin cross-bridges rotate toward center of sarcomere

133
Q

In contracted muscles, (charge)

A

sodium is pulled inside membrane, making inside positive and outside negative (see drawings for relaxed and contracted muscles)

134
Q

4 functions of ATP muscle contraction

A
  1. ATP hydrolysis by ATPase, associated with myosin head, activates myosin head so it can
    bind to actin. Thick filament to bind to thin filament and slide thin filament to center of sarcomere.
  2. Cause detachment of thick filament from thin filament (myosin and actin)
  3. Power the pumps that transport calcium from the sarcoplasm back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (calcium active transport pumps)
  4. Drive the Na+/K+ ATPase pump (maintains resting membrane potential)
    a. This pump pushes Na+ out, K+ in to maintain RMP
135
Q

After death, sarcoplasmic reticulum begins to leak out

A

calcium

136
Q

Chemical processes in the relaxation of muscles

A

Acetolcholinease breaks down ACH in synaptic cleft
blocks ACH from motor neuron
block ACH receptor on motor end plate of sarcolemma
blocks nerve AP

137
Q

Chemical processes in the contraction of muscles

A

AP of major neuron ACH released
ACH binds to ACHR
muscle AP
ACHase decreases/destroys ACH

138
Q

Acetylcholinase ACHase

A

enzyme inhibitor

139
Q

Anabolic steroids

A

used to increase protein synthesis, similar to testosterone

140
Q

Creatine

A

only found in muscle

141
Q

ATP from anaerobic glycolysis duration of energy

A

2 minutes

142
Q

ATP from aerobic respiration duration of energy

A

several minutes to an hour

143
Q

Study page 308

A

:)

144
Q

List of different parts of the long bone

A
  1. diaphysis
  2. epiphysis
  3. metaphysis
  4. articular cartilage
  5. periosteum
  6. medullary cartilage
  7. endosteum
145
Q

Compact bone

A

contains very few spaces and is the strongest form of tissue

146
Q

Spongy bone

A

consists of thin columns called trabeculae, spaces filled with red bone marrow

147
Q

What is the function of the foramen of the bone?

A

an opening in which blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments pass

148
Q

Ossification

A

the process by which bone forms

149
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A

bone forms directly within mesenchyme, which is arranged in sheetlike layers that resemble membranes

150
Q

Intramembranous ossification example

A

flat bones of the skull

151
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

bone forms within hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme

152
Q

Endochondral ossification example

A

long bone

153
Q

When does the secondary ossification center develop during endochondral ossification?

A

usually around the time of birth

154
Q

What is articular cartilage?

A

area of a joint and movement, hyaline cartilage in most areas

155
Q

Zones of the epiphyseal plate

A
  1. zone of resting cartilage
  2. zone of proliferating cartilage
  3. zone of hypertrophic cartilage
  4. zone of calcified cartilage
156
Q

Zone of proliferating cartilage

A

chondrocytes in this zone divide to replace those that die at the diaphyseal side of epiphyseal plate

157
Q

Zone of hypertrophic cartilage

A

large/maturing chondrocytes arranged in a column

158
Q

Epiphyseal line

A

actual bony structure

159
Q

Which zone do hormones affect?

A

??

160
Q

Which hormones have a role in bone growth?

A

insulin-like growth factors (IGF) and sex hormones (test. and est.)

161
Q

How do long bones grow in width as opposed to length?

A

??

162
Q

What is a sarcomere?

A

compartments where filaments are arranged, basic functional units of a myofibril

163
Q

Which regulatory protein does calcium bind to?

A

troponin

164
Q

What effect does calcium have when it is bound to this regulatory protein?

A

calcium undergoes change in shape, moves tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites on actin. muscle contraction begins as myosin binds to actin

165
Q

What is the significance of myosin binding sites on actin?

A

??

166
Q

Which filament requires ATP to function?

A

Actin?

167
Q

What does the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum do? (4 things)

A
  1. stores calcium so relaxation of the muscle can occur
  2. releases calcium for contraction of the muscle to occur
  3. contains calcium active transport pumps
  4. contains calcium release channels
168
Q

What causes calcium release channels to open?

A

action potential goes into sarcoplasm, lands in troponin

169
Q

What causes calcium release channels to close?

A

??

170
Q

What occurs as a result of opening the calcium release channel?

A

causes contraction

171
Q

Where does muscle AP take place?

A

the sarcolemma

172
Q

What causes a muscle action potential to occur?

A

the depolarization of the sarcolemma

173
Q

Where is the neuromuscular junction found?

A

on the muscle fiber

174
Q

What is the significance of creatine phosphate and myoglobin for muscle metabolism?

A

??

A&P (4 decks)

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