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PSYC2450 - Developmental Psychology > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What basic/primary emotions are present at birth?

A

interest, disgust, distress, contentment

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2
Q

What emotions emerge between 2 and 7 months old?

A

anger, sadness, joy, surprise, fear

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3
Q

What is the purpose of disgust in babies?

A

It helps them to avoid things that may potentially be harmful or toxic.

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4
Q

What self-conscious emotions emerge in the second year?

A

Embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, pride.

These come along with understanding that they are an independent being.

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5
Q

What is the difference between guilt and shame?

A

Guilt: not living up to someone’s expectations, effects are not as long-lasting

Shame: basing self-worth on what other’s think of you, effects are much more long-lasting; highly correlated with low self-worth and many mental health difficulties

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6
Q

What are emotional display rules?

A

Unspoken rules about when to suppress and express emotions.

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7
Q

What are emotional regulation differences between boys and girls?

A
  • girls are better able to regulate their emotions than boys
  • girls aren’t allowed to express anger socially, and experience more consequences if they do
  • boys aren’t allowed to cry socially
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8
Q

What are temper tantrums a likely indicator of?

A

Tantrums can indicate a child’s inability to process an emotion at a certain time (ex. anger, sadness…).

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9
Q

What is social referencing?

A

The use of others’ emotions as a guide. Babies and toddlers tend to look at their caregiver when something frightening/intense happens so they know how to react.

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10
Q

Describe empathy

A

The ability to experience the same emotions that someone is experiencing, and to discuss emotional experiences.

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11
Q

What is emotional competence?

A

The ability to regulate emotions; part of social competence

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12
Q

What is temperament?

A

Characteristic modes of responding to environmental events, all babies have some degrees of these characteristics:

  • fearful distress
  • irritable distress
  • positive affect
  • activity level
  • attention span/persistence
  • rhythmicity
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13
Q

What is fearful distress?

A

The degree to which infants withdraw or avoid novel stimuli.

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14
Q

What is irritable distress?

A

Fussiness, crying, showing distress when desires aren’t met

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15
Q

What is positive affect?

A

Frequency of smiling, laughing, willingness to approach strangers

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16
Q

What is activity level?

A

Amount of gross motor activity

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17
Q

What is attention span/persistence?

A

Length of time a child orients to and focuses on events of interest

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18
Q

What is rhythmicity?

A

The predictability of bodily functions

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19
Q

What are the effects of shared and non-shared environmental influences?

A

Shared: positive aspects of behaviour

Non-shared: negative attributes

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20
Q

Explain bidirectional effects:

A

Babies and parents are both impacted by each other.

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21
Q

What is considered an “easy” baby?

A

Positive mood, regular habits, adaptable

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22
Q

What is considered a “difficult” baby?

A

Active, irritable, react negatively to novelty

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23
Q

What is considered a slow-to-warm-up baby?

A

Moody, inactive, eventually adapt to novelty

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24
Q

What is the goodness of fit model?

A
  • match between parenting and child’s temperament, in terms of coping and resilience
  • how well a child adjusts, as well as their “fit” in their environment
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25
Q

Define attachment

A

Close emotional relationships between two people, mutual affection, desire to maintain proximity.

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26
Q

Does attachment in early years have effects in later years?

A

Yes, attachment that forms between infancy and childhood is the building blocks for personality and other relationship building.

If this doesn’t occur properly in early life, there can be corrective attachment later in life.

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27
Q

What are synchronized routines in attachment?

A
  • back and forth interaction that form attachments
  • babies have specific behaviours that promote attachment (ex. smiling)
  • baby has need > baby cries > baby’s need is met by caregiver > trust develops
  • promotes attachment
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28
Q

PHASES IN INFANT ATTACHMENT

  1. Asocial phase (0-6 weeks old)
A
  • babies don’t really do much
  • don’t have much response to anything
  • by 6 weeks they prefer human faces to other stimuli
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29
Q

PHASES IN INFANT ATTACHMENT

  1. Indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks to 6/7 months)
A
  • enjoy human company, doesn’t matter who

- likely to fuss when put down

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30
Q

PHASES IN INFANT ATTACHMENT

  1. Specific attachment (7-9 months)
A
  • protest separation from a caregiver
  • have an attachment figure (usually mother), and feel safe with their person so that they can explore the world comfortably
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31
Q

PHASES IN INFANT ATTACHMENT

  1. Multiple attachments (by 18 months)
A
  • fathers, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other caregivers start to provide the same comfort as mother
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32
Q

Describe stranger anxiety

A
  • negative reaction of infant/toddler to unfamiliar person
  • emerges once first attachment is formed
  • peaks at 8-10 months
  • evolutionary feature to keep kids from wandering away
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33
Q

Describe separation anxiety

A
  • discomfort when separated from object of attachment

- peaks at 14-18 months

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34
Q

ATTACHMENT STYLES

Secure (65%)

A
  • infant explores while mother is present
  • upset when mother leaves
  • greets mother warmly upon return and seeks her for comfort
  • friendly to stranger when mother is present
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35
Q

ATTACHMENT STYLES

Avoidant (20%)

A
  • very little distress when mother leaves
  • seems to ignore mother
  • may be sociable or ignorant with stranger
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36
Q

ATTACHMENT STYLES

Disorganized/Disoriented (5-10%)

A
  • seem to both approach and avoid mother

- may act dazed or freeze

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37
Q

ATTACHMENT STYLES

Resistant (10%)

A
  • infant stays close to mother, upset when she leaves
  • explores very little in mother’s presence
  • ambivalent when she returns
  • wary of stranger at all times
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38
Q

What are risk factors that can lead to insensitive caregiving?

A
  • depression
  • emotionally insecure adults
  • unplanned pregnancies/unwanted infants
  • health, legal, or financial problems
  • unhappy marriages
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39
Q

What is proprioceptive feedback?

A

A sense of self based on physical sensations.

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40
Q

What is personal agency?

A

Sense of control that shapes a person’s subjective awareness.

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41
Q

What is the categorical self?

A

Classification along social dimensions, such as age and sex.

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42
Q

Describe self-concept in preschoolers:

A
  • concrete and physical, but rudimentary psychological awareness
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43
Q

Describe middle-schoolers self- concepts:

A
  • includes more “inner” qualities
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44
Q

Describe self-concepts in adolescents:

A
  • recognize that they are not the same in all situations

- false-self behaviours

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45
Q

Describe identity:

A
  • self-definition

- sense of who one is, where one is going in society, and how one fits into society

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46
Q

How does Erikson describe the identity crisis experienced in adolescence?

A

Uncertainty and discomfort at confusion about one’s role in life.

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47
Q

What are the 4 steps in identity status in adolescence?

A
  1. Identity diffusion
  2. Foreclosure
  3. Moratorium
  4. Identity achievement
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48
Q

Describe identity diffusion:

A
  • production of a sense of self based on others around us
  • very fluid
  • adolescents may or may not experience and identity crisis
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49
Q

Describe foreclosure:

A
  • decision of an identity without really exploring other options
  • accepting without questioning
  • no critical analysis
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50
Q

Describe moratorium:

A
  • in the midst of a crisis
  • at some point adolescents go through a crisis and realize they are not who others think they are/who they think they are
  • period of extreme anxiety
  • vitally engaged in a struggle to find their own identity
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51
Q

Describe identity achievement:

A
  • adolescents emerge feeling like they know themselves a little better
  • BUT identity formation takes time, it is a lifelong formation
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52
Q

What are 4 factors that influence identity formation?

A
  • cognitive influences
  • parenting influences
  • scholastic influences
  • sociocultural influences
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53
Q

What is self-esteem?

A

One’s evaluation of one’s worth as a person - either good or bad, not neutral

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54
Q

What are factors that influence someone’s self concept?

A
  • scholastic competence
  • social acceptance
  • athletic competence
  • physical appearance
  • behavioural conduct
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55
Q

How do children aged 4-7 rate themselves?

A

All positive

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56
Q

How do children age 8 rate themselves?

A

Ratings similar to others’ evaluations

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57
Q

How do adolescents rate themselves?

A
  • dependent on relationship
  • relational self-wort
  • some declines in early adolescence
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58
Q

How does self-esteem fluctuate?

A

Gradual decline through early adolescence, then strengthens

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59
Q

What are gender differences in self-esteem?

A
  • girls tend to have overall lower levels of self-esteem than boys
  • girls base their identities on social relationships, while boys tend to define themselves based on group roles
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60
Q

Social influences on self-esteem:

A
  • parenting styles (“older, kinder, stronger, wiser” mentality parents tend to raise more confident children, and create higher levels of achievement)
  • social comparison to peers
  • culture, ethnicity
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61
Q

What is achievement motivation?

A

Willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment.

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62
Q

Since motivation can’t be pulled out of thin air, what are the 3 factors that lead to motivation?

A
  • autonomy
  • competence
  • connectedness
63
Q

List the 3 early phases of achievement motivation:

A
  1. Joy in mastery (infancy-age 2): done for themselves
  2. Approval-seeking (age 2): want other people to be watching, want others to think more highly of them
  3. Use of standards (age 3+)
64
Q

Home influences on achievement motivation:

A
  • attachment quality
  • stimulation in home environment
  • authoritative parenting style
65
Q

How do peers influence achievement motivation?

How does culture influence achievement motivation?

A

Higher levels of motivation with positive peer groups that are encouraging.

If a culture promotes achievement.

66
Q

Define achievement attributions:

A

Causal explanations that a person provides for his or her successes and failures.

67
Q

What is attribution retraining?

A

Intervention designed to see failure due to lack of effort, not ability.

68
Q

How do children attribute traits to others?

A
  • under 7 or 8, they use concrete terms, but are aware of behavioural consistencies
  • older children rely more on psychological descriptors and recognize socially desirable responses
69
Q

Role-taking skills _______ as social cognition develops.

A

improve

70
Q

What is Selman’s role-taking theory?

A
  • ability to understand other person’s perspective develops

- presented interpersonal dilemmas with multiple characters to children

71
Q

What is sex (according to science and research)?

A
  • a person’s biological identity

- chromosomes, physical identity, and hormones

72
Q

What is gender?

A
  • how we think of boys and girls, and how environment shapes them
  • a person’s social and cultural identity
73
Q

What is gender typing?

A

Process by which children acquire gender roles.

74
Q

What is social prescription?

A
  • qualities or features that are supposed to be possessed by boys or girls
  • ex. boys have short hair, girls have long hair
75
Q

Define gender-role standard:

A

Behaviour, value, or motive that members of a society consider more typical or appropriate for members of one sex.

76
Q

What are different gender-role standards?

A

Expressive role: nurturing, caring, cooperation, sensitivity to the needs of others; usually directed towards girls

Instrumental role: assertiveness, independence, goal-oriented, competitive; usually directed towards boys

77
Q

What are SMALL but reliable psychological differences between sexes?

A
  • verbal ability (girls tend to show more verbal ability)
  • visual/spatial ability (boys tend to be better at these)
  • mathematical abilities (boys tend to do better in arithmetic reasoning and are more confident; girls actually do better than boys overall)
  • aggression (boys tend to be more aggressive than girls)
78
Q

What are the steps in gender identity development?

A
  1. Discriminate males from females
  2. Label males and females
  3. Sex is a permanent attribute
79
Q

Describe the development of gender-role stereotypes:

A
  • Starts around ages 2-3, psychological discriminations later
  • ages 3-7: strict conformists to stereotypes
  • gender intensification in adolescence; very strong at this point, engage in very overt forms of gender-typed behaviour
80
Q

How are gender-role stereotypes influenced?

A
  • parental pressure: doing gender based activites with parents of the same gender
  • societal pressure: gender cultural norms
81
Q

How does gender-typed behaviour develop?

A
  • gender segregation (play style/activity level)
  • adolescent gender intensification
  • culture assigns greater status to male role
82
Q

Describe the evolutionary theory about sex differences:

A
  • natural selection
  • adaptive pressures
  • does not explain cultural differences (social role hypothesis)
83
Q

Describe the biosocial theory about sex differences:

A
  • focuses on biological forces that affect gender typing
  • genetic influences (beginning at conception)
  • hormonal influences
  • congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
  • androgenized girls and social labelling
84
Q

Describe Halpern’s Psychobiosocial view on sex differences:

A
  • prenatal hormones influence brain organization
  • early experience affects neural pathway organization
  • biology and environment are intertwined
85
Q

Describe Freud’s psychoanalytic theory on sex differences:

A
  • gender roles emerge in phallic stage
  • identification with same sex parents
  • boys experience castration anxiety
  • Oedipus/Electra complex
86
Q

Describe the Social Learning Theory on sex differences:

A

There are 2 ways gender identity is acquired:

  1. direct tuition (reinforcement)
  2. observational learning from same-sex models (media influences)
87
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental theory on sex differences:

A
  • gender-role development depends on cognitive development
  • children are active in process
  • gender identity first, behaviours later
88
Q

How do we define morality?

A

An internal sense of what’s right and what’s wrong. Set of principles and ideals that help and individual distinguish right from wrong.

89
Q

What is moral reasoning?

A
  • how we solve cognitive dilemmas, or how we think we will behave (not always what we will actually do)
90
Q

What is moral behaviour?

A
  • actions that are supposed to be consistent with our morals
91
Q

What is moral affect?

A
  • the emotional component of morality, including feelings such as guilt, shame, and pride in ethical conduct
92
Q

What is Freud’s theory of Oedipal morality?

A
  • boys adopt their father’s moral reasoning and hold tightly due to fear of their fathers
  • largely unsupported
  • girls adopt their mother’s morals, but don’t hold them as tightly
93
Q

What are some newer ideas about the development of conscious?

A
  • a mutually responsive relationship (committed compliance)
  • kids start to recognize cues from their caregivers
  • kids seek out their parents’ attention and approval
94
Q

How does aloof/insensitive parenting affect moral development?

A
  • usually triggers situational compliance, which is less about the relationship and more about fear of punishment
  • not much connection with moral development
95
Q

How do parents influence moral development?

A

Kids look to their parents to determine what is right and wrong in the world.

96
Q

3 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. Premoral period (0-5 years)
A
  • don’t really understand that rules are permanent
97
Q

3 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. Heteronomous morality (5-10 years)
A
  • under the rule of another
  • right and wrong are very black and white, follow the rule BECAUSE it’s the rule
  • rules, immanent justice, expiatory punishment
  • believe that punishment is equally bad for whatever rule is broken (ex. going to jail)
98
Q

3 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. Autonomous morality (by age 10-11)
A
  • rules as arbitrary agreements
  • morality is based on own beliefs and values
  • the understanding that different rules exist in different places
99
Q

What are some evaluations of Piaget’s theories of moral development?

A
  • underestimate young children, kids have more understanding of morality than previously thought
  • kids are able to distinguish between moral rules and social-conventional rules (ex. being well behaved at school vs. difficult for parents)
  • kids have ideas about legitimate authority
100
Q

KOHLBERG’S THEORY ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. Preconventional morality
A
  • morality based on consequences
  • Stage 1: punishment and obedience
  • Stage 2: naïve hedonism
101
Q

KOHLBERG’S THEORY ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. Conventional morality
A
  • desire to gain others’ approval
  • Stage 3: “good boy”
  • Stage 4: social-order
102
Q

KOHLBERG’S THEORY ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT

  1. Postconventional morality
A
  • principles of justice; acting for the benefit of others, in line with the social contract, not because we’re worried about being caught
  • Stage 5: social-contract
  • Stage 6: individual principles
103
Q

What is the support for Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A
  • levels and stages are universal
  • kids go through these stages in the same order
  • cognitive prerequisites (once kids reach meta-level of cognition, they tend to show moral development)
  • social-experience hypothesis (parental, peer, education, and cultural influences)
104
Q

What are the criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A
  • cultural bias (western)
  • gender bias
  • incomplete
  • link to moral conduct
  • underestimates young children
105
Q

What is love withdrawal?

A
  • removal of attention and approval from kids when they are misbehaving
  • not favourably evaluated by kids
106
Q

What is power assertion?

A
  • use of superior intellect, physicality, and the fact that we control most resources available to kids in order to encourage kids to act in line with our beliefs
  • second-most preferred technique
  • considered a negative discipline practice
107
Q

What is induction?

A
  • an explanation of why a rule is in place
  • preferred by children
  • best practice to raise a morally mature child
108
Q

What is altruism?

A
  • concern for welfare of others
  • willingness to act on concern
  • selfless act in prosocial ways - for the good of social welfare/good of another person
109
Q

How does altruism develop?

A
  • through affective explanations that increase compassion (ex. explaining why a kid should say sorry to another, because of the way the other child is feeling)
  • NOT through coercive tactics (ex. telling a kid to say sorry to another, just because they should)
110
Q

Describe early prosocial behaviour

A
  • toddlers show sympathy/compassion (ex. sharing toys), but rarely make self-sacrificial responses (ex. sharing a treasured toy)
111
Q

Why does altruistic behaviour increase in school years?

A

There is a link between perspective-taking and altruism.

112
Q

What is the “felt responsibility” hypothesis?

A

When you feel the emotion yourself, so you feel some responsibility to help them in some way through a prosocial act.

113
Q

What are social influences on altruism?

A
  • norm of social responsibility

- reinforcing, practicing, and preaching altruism

114
Q

Why are kids aggressive?

A

Kids are aggressive because they don’t have fully developed frontal lobes, and are not cognitively mature enough to suppress rage responses.

115
Q

What is aggression?

A

Behaviour with the intent to harm.

116
Q

Types of aggression:

A

Reactive (hostile) aggression

  • goal is to harm victim
  • impulsive
  • can be a reaction to perceived threat or offence

Proactive (instrumental) aggression)
- harm is means to an end (access to objects, space, or privileges)

117
Q

Aggression in infants:

A
  • beginning of proactive aggression
118
Q

Aggression in preschoolers:

A
  • verbal aggression replaces physical aggression

- usually proactive

119
Q

Aggression in childhood:

A
  • more amicable settlements
  • slight increase in reactive aggression
  • begin to cognitively recognize when someone is trying to harm them
  • more about protecting themselves from harm
  • condone retaliatory aggression (don’t see it as a problem)
120
Q

Gender differences in aggression: Parenting

A
  • there is more tolerance for aggression in boys than in girls
  • more negative reactions to aggressive girls
121
Q

Gender differences in aggression: Toys and Play

A
  • boys toys tend to encourage physical aggression, while girls toys tend to encourage nurturing and caring
  • rough and tumble play is good for development in boys and girls, but it is not encouraged in girls as much as in boys
122
Q

What is relational aggression?

A

Harm inflicted on a target through damage to, or manipulation of social relationships. Usually used to gain some social advantage.

  • used more by girls than boys
  • girls notice relational aggression more than boys do
  • gossiping, online bullying, eye roles…
123
Q

What is relational perpetration?

A

Engaging in relational aggression.

124
Q

What is relational victimization?

A

Being on the receiving end of relational aggression.

125
Q

What is dyadic aggression?

A

The kind of relational aggression you engage in with other people against a third party.

126
Q

What characteristics do proactive aggressors show?

A
  • use aggression to solve problems
  • believe aggression will “pay off”
  • kids who do it well gain reward, kids who don’t do it well are rejected by peers
127
Q

What characteristics do reactive aggressors show?

A
  • hostile aggression
  • suspicious of others
  • believe others deserve harsh treatment
  • kids have a “quick trigger”
  • display a hostile attribution bias
128
Q

Define hostile attribution bias

A

Tendency to interpret harm done in an ambiguous situation as intentionally hostile.

129
Q

Describe the 2 types of victims of peer aggression:

A
  1. Passive victims:
    - socially withdrawn, physically weak, do not provoke aggression
  2. Provocative victims
    - oppositional, restless, display hostile attribution bias
    - may experience physically coercive discipline at home
130
Q

What are the costs of aggression?

A
  • psycho-social adjustments
  • relational deficits
  • peer rejection
131
Q

What are the benefits of aggression?

A
  • popularity and PVCs (peer-valued characteristics)
  • teacher approval
  • social centrality
132
Q

Why is the family important?

A

The family is a social system of individuals, with its most important function to socialize children.

133
Q

Why is successful co-parenting important?

A
  • how parents parent together (don’t have to be married, or even together)
  • the ability to support and facilitate parenting and work as a parental alliance are all related with better outcomes for children
134
Q

Why was/is mother blame a problem?

A
  • mother blame was and is used to explain undesirable trends that the younger generation are doing on their mothers
  • stressful for moms
135
Q

What are some changes in larger culture to the family?

A
  • single adults
  • later marriage
  • decreased childbearing
  • women’s employment
  • divorce
  • single-parent families
  • poverty
  • remarriage
136
Q

Describe authoritarian parenting:

A
  • harsh, controllling
  • likely to expect obedience from children
  • tend to use coercive tactics
137
Q

What is acceptance/responsiveness in parenting?

A

The amount of responsiveness and affection that a parent displays toward a child.

138
Q

What is demandingness/control in parenting?

A

How restrictive and demanding parents are.

139
Q

Describe authoritative parenting:

A
  • flexible, democratic style
  • warm and accepting
  • parents provide guidance and control while allowing the child some say in deciding how best to meet challenges and obligations
140
Q

Describe permissive parenting:

A
  • parents rarely exert power over children
  • can be warm and supportive
  • lacking in supervision and control
141
Q

Describe uninvolved parenting:

A
  • low warmth and supervision
  • child is either rejected or the parents are overwhelmed
  • considered to be one of the most damaging parenting styles
142
Q

What are the effects of behavioural control?

A
  • leads to better outcomes for children
  • separation of behaviour from personality helps kids retain their integrity
  • kids are better able to regulate their behaviour later in life
143
Q

What are the effects of psychological control?

A
  • not as good outcomes
  • can be used through harsh discipline (ex. counting down and punishing kids if they don’t behave)
  • fear, withdrawal of affection
  • leads to kids who are concerned about whether or not they are able to maintain relationships
144
Q

What factors contribute to sibling conflicts?

A
  • marital conflict
  • parental monitoring
  • equality of treatment
145
Q

What are some characteristics of only children?

A
  • positive self-esteem and achievement motivation
  • more obedient and intellectually competent
  • very good peer relations
146
Q

What determines the success of adoptive families?

A
  • child’s history
  • match with family is very important
  • most cases are highly successful
147
Q

What are other types of families?

A
  • donor insemination families (well-adjusted children)

- gay and lesbian families (well-adjusted children)

148
Q

What are some impacts of divorce?

A
  • conflict before divorce (direct and indirect effects)
  • crisis and reorganization (custody, parenting quality)
  • remarriage and blended families (remarriage is common, complex vs. simple stepparent families)
149
Q

In mother-stepfather families, ________ benefit more than ________.

A

boys benefit more than girls

150
Q

In father-stepmother families, ________ benefit more than ________.

A

boys benefit more than girls

151
Q

Who is likely to abuse?

A
  • no single personality profile

- some patterns: emotionally insecure, alcohol or drug problems, victims of abusive relationships

152
Q

What are the consequences of physical abuse on children?

A
  • hostility
  • aggression
  • social problems
153
Q

What are the consequences of neglect on children?

A
  • academic problems
  • lack of close friends
  • general lack of academic and social competence

PSYC2450 - Developmental Psychology (1 decks)

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