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Geoscience > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Differentiate data vs. an interpretation

A
  • Data is a fact based on a measurable observation

- Interpretation is why you think something is going to happen or why it happened that specific way.

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2
Q

What is an observation

A

Facts, measurement, information, data collected using the senses

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3
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

A testable explanation or interpretation that can be verified or falsified

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4
Q

What is a prediction

A

A statement of what will happen or what will happen in a given situation

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5
Q

Explain how Earth’s magnetic field is generated and why this is important for life on Earth

A

Earth’s magnetic field is created by the circulation of liquid iron through the outer core, the magnetic field is important because it protects earth from the solar wind that comes from the sun. The shield is called the magnetosphere

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6
Q

Define topography

A

Variations in elevation

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7
Q

Compare and contrast Earth’s structural layers, including their thicknesses/densities, arrangement, and what they consist of.

A
  • Core: most dense, made up of iron alloy, it’s solid event thought the temperature is hottest because it is deeper and subjected to greater pressure
  • Mantle: Dense, made up of peridotite, can melt but extremely slowly
  • Oceanic Crust: Denser than Continental crust, made up of basalt
  • Continental crust: Thicker than oceanic crust, made up of granite
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8
Q

Why can the asthenosphere, but not the lithosphere, flow?

A

The asthenosphere can flow because the temperature gets hot enough. The lithosphere can’t flow because it never gets hot enough.

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9
Q

Why is the outer core liquid, but the inner core solid?

A

the inner core is solid because it is subjected to much greater pressure compared to the outer core.

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10
Q

Explain Alfred Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis

A

Alfred Wegener had a theory that all the continents of Earth used to be one mega continent called Pangaea and that the continents drifted apart

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11
Q

Evidence that supported Alfred Wegener’s Continental drift hypothesis

A
  • Shapes of continents fit fairly well together
  • Fossil record matches up across continents that would have been connected during Pangaea
  • Evidence for past environments (as deduced using the rock record) matches Pangaea reconstruction.
  • Locations of mountain belts matches Pangaea reconstruction
  • Evidence for glacier movements matches Pangaea reconstruction
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12
Q

Explain the concept of seafloor spreading

A

The gradual widening an ocean basin as new oceanic crust forms at a mid-ocean ridge axis and then moves away from the axis.

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13
Q

What information led to the acceptance of plate tectonics

A

The magnetic zones were symmetrical on both sides of the Mid Atlantic ridge indicating that the lava coming up from the ridge was creating new ocean floor and pushing the crust apart. This evidence lead to the theory of convection currents that provided a mechanism for the movement of the massive continents.

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14
Q

Describe, in general terms, how plate tectonics work

A

The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates that move relative to each other. As the plates move, rock along the plate boundaries undergoes intense deformation. As plates move so do the continents that form part of the plates.

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15
Q

How is new ocean crust formed?

A

New ocean crust is formed at a mid ocean ridge by a divergent boundary.

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16
Q

What is a active margin and list one example

A

An active continental margin is found on the leading edge of the continent where it is crashing into an oceanic plate. An excellent example is the west coast of South America

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17
Q

What is a passive margin and list one example

A

A passive margin is the transition between oceanic and continental lithosphere that is not an active plate margin. Ex. Eastern part of North American Plate

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18
Q

Discuss the features, processes, and relative plate motions associated with a divergent plate boundary, and where they can be found on planet Earth.

A
  • A boundary at which two plates move apart from each other.
  • Divergent boundaries are associated with seafloor spreading
  • During seafloor spreading the ocean floor gets wider and continents on either side move apart.
  • New oceanic crust forms at the ridge axis by magma cooling
  • Takes place at a mid ocean ridge/ridge
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19
Q

Define Subduction Zone

A

The region along a convergent boundary where one plate sinks beneath another

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20
Q

Define Volcanic Arc

A

A curving chain of active volcanoes formed adjacent to a convergent plate boundary

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21
Q

Explain the features and processes associated with a transform boundary and where they can be found on Earth.

A
  • The actively slipping segment of a fracture zone between two ridge segments
  • One plate slides sideways past another, but no new plate forms and no old plate is consumed.
  • They can be found along mid ocean ridges
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22
Q

Oceanic/oceanic convergent boundary forms

A

A volcanic island arc

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23
Q

Oceanic/Continental convergent boundary forms

A

Forms a continental volcanic arc where a chain of volcanoes grow on a continent. Ex. Mt. Fugie

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24
Q

Continental/Continental convergent boundary forms

A

Mountains, this is the thickets crust on the planet Ex. Himalaya’s and Appalachian Mountains

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25
Q

Explain the factors that determine which oceanic plate subducts at an oceanic/oceanic convergent boundary

A

Whichever plate is older and denser will subduct

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26
Q

Explain the process of continental rifting

A

The process by which a continent stretches and splits along a belt; if successful, rifting separates a larger continent into two smaller continents separated by a divergent boundary.

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27
Q

Explain the process of Continental collision

A

Ocean basin subducts and after subduction stops two continental plates collide which form mountains. This is the thickest crust on the planet. Ex. Himalaya’s and Appalachian Mountains

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28
Q

What are the 3 primary ways in which minerals form

A
  • Precipitation from solution (Ex. seawater evaporates)
  • Cooling of a melt (most rocks in earth’s crust)
  • Metamorphism (ex. Carbon →Diamond)
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29
Q

What is the most abundant element in Earth’s crust?

A

oxygen

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30
Q

What is the most abundant element in the entire earth?

A

iron

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31
Q

What are the 7 major classes of rock forming mineral. give ex. of each

A
  1. Silicates – ex. Feldspar
  2. Carbonates – ex. Calcite
  3. Oxides – ex. Hematite
  4. Halides – ex. Halite
  5. Sulfates – ex. Gypsum
  6. Slufides – ex. Iron Pyrite
  7. Native elements – ex. Sulfur, gold
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32
Q

Identify the 3 major rock types and where they can be found on (or in) Earth

A
  • Igneous Rocks: Can be found on and in Earth’s surface.
  • Sedimentary Rocks: Can be found on Earth.
  • Metamorphic Rocks: Can be found on and in Earth’s surface.
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33
Q

How does a volcanic (extrusive) igneous rock form?

A

A volcanic extrusive rock forms when magma rises to Earth’s surface

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34
Q

How does a intrusive igneous rock form?

A

A volcanic intrusive rock forms when magma solidifies below Earth’s surface.

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35
Q

What is an example of a volcanic (extrusive) igneous rock?

A

Basalt

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36
Q

What is an example of an intrusive igneous rock?

A

Gabbro

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37
Q

Explain how the characteristics of an igneous rock (color and texture) provide information on its cooling history and silica content.

A
  • The texture of the igneous rock helps you determine what size grains you have.
  • The darker the rock the lower the silica content, the lighter the rock the higher the silica content
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38
Q

Describe 3 ways to melt a rock (3 ways to form magma)

A
  • Increase temperature
  • Decrease Pressure
  • Add volatiles
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39
Q

What are the melting temperatures of felsic and mafic minerals

A 
Felsic = lowest melting temps 
Mafic = highest melting temps
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40
Q

Mafic magma is formed by the partial melting of

A

the mantle, low silica

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41
Q

Felsic magma is formed by

A

the partial melting of the continental crust, silica rich

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42
Q

Explain Fractional crystallization

A

The general process of cooling magma

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43
Q

How does magma form at a divergent boundary

A

Decompression melting – this is when temperature stays the same and pressure decreases. A decrease in pressure you cross over from a solid to a liquid

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44
Q

How does magma form at a convergent boundary

A

Adding water and Partial melting of a mix of felsic and intermediate magmas

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45
Q

Hazards associated with Stratovolcanoes:

A

Tephra (volcanic ash, debris), lahars (volcanic mudflows), and pyroclastic flows

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46
Q

Hazards associated with shield volcanoes:

A

lava flows and cinder cones

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47
Q

Where do you find stratovolcanoes?

A

Subduction zone

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48
Q

Where do you typically find Shield volcanoes?

A

Hotspots and sometimes subduction zones

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49
Q

What factors make a volcanic explosion most dangerous?

A

High viscosity: lava piles up in lava domes, gases trapped, lower temp high silica (abundant silica chains)

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50
Q

Where are you likely to find high viscosity lava?

A

Convergent plate boundary

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51
Q

Where are you likely to find low viscosity lava?

A

Hot spots

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52
Q

Define lahar

A

Volcanic mudflow, looks more like a mud slide

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53
Q

Define pyroclastic flow

A

Hot gases and tephra (volcanic ash, debris) travel in the air like big smoke clouds

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54
Q

4 ways in which volcanic activity is monitored

A
  • Increased seismic activity
  • Increased gas activity
  • Changes in topography, shape
  • Changes in temperature
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55
Q

What are the two main kinds of weathering

A

Physical and chemical

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56
Q

Formation of a chemical sedimentary rock:

A

Precipitated from a solution (e.g., sea water) as a result of changing physical or chemical conditions

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57
Q

Formation of a biochemical sedimentary rock:

A

Living organisms cause minerals to be precipitated from solution. Remains of dead plants/organisms (coal, limestone, chalk)

58
Q

4 steps in the formation of a clastic sedimentary rock

A
  1. Breakdown of rock to form sediment
  2. Transportation of sediment
  3. Deposition of sediment
  4. Lithification
59
Q

Explain how sediment changes as it moves from its source toward its place of final deposition

A

There is a decrease in minerals, well sorted, rounded sediment

60
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in a mountain stream

A

Breccia and conglomerate

61
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in beach or sand dunes

A

Sandstone

62
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in river environments

A

rippled sandstone, siltsone, and shale

63
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in lake environments

A

shale

64
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in a shallow marine environment

A

Siltstone and mudstone containing marine fossils

65
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in shallow water carbonate environments

A

Various kinds of limestone

66
Q

Name the rock that would likely form in deep marine deposits

A

Mudstone, chalk, or bedded chert

67
Q

Transgression

A

Increase in sea level

68
Q

Regression

A

Decrease in sea level

69
Q

Explain the difference between the brittle and ductile zones in Earth

A

Brittle zone - stress causes rock to fracture

Ductile Zone - Stress causes rock to flow in solid state

70
Q

What is metamorphism?

A

Changes in mineral composition and the texture that can occur in any solid rock due to pressure, temperature, and presence of fluids. Happens in the ductile zone

71
Q

List some ways rocks respond to metamorphism

A
  • Rocks can recrystallize and grow new minerals
  • Deformation
  • Foliate
72
Q

Contact metamorphism

A

Occurs due to increasing temperature near magma

73
Q

Regional metamorphism

A

Occurs due to increasing temperature and pressure along plate boundaries

74
Q

Explain how a foliation is formed in a metamorphic rock

A

By the application of pressure

75
Q

Where is contact metamorphism likely to occur?

A

Convergent and divergent boundaries

76
Q

Where is regional metamorphism likely to occur?

A

Convergent boundaries

77
Q

List the 6 steps of the rock cycle

A
  1. Weathering of all rock types on the surface
  2. Transportation/erosion of rocks particles by rain, wind, streams etc.
  3. Deposition
  4. Compaction and Cementation creating sedimentary rocks
  5. Metamorphism sedimentary or igneous rocks turn in to metamorphic rocks
  6. Rock melting: metamorphic rocks melt underground and when an eruption occurs the lava cools on the surface and becomes igneous rock
78
Q

Metamorphism takes place at what temp to form metamorphic rocks

A

200C-1000C

79
Q

Melting takes place at what temp

A

1100C and above

80
Q

Lithification takes place at what temp to form sedimentary rocks?

A
81
Q

Explain what causes an earthquake?

A
  • Fault motion causes an earthquake.
  • Time one – Friction causes most faults to “stick”
  • Time two – Build up of stress causes the rock to deform
  • Time three – After some time (can vary), stress overcomes friction and causes fault movement (slip). i.e. Earthquake
82
Q

What is the general distribution of earthquakes on earth?

A

Earthquakes occur on faults, which are commonplace along plate boundaries

83
Q

Are there lots of earthquakes worldwide, or only a few throughout the year?

A

Yes there are lots of earthquakes world wide around about 55 per day

84
Q

Compression leads to what kind of fault

A

Reverse fault

85
Q

Tension leads to what kind of fault

A

A normal fault

86
Q

Shear leads to what kind of fault

A

Strike-slip fault

87
Q

What two factors controls the magnitude of an earthquake

A
  • The amount of slip along a fault

- The length of the fault that slips

88
Q

Reasons why earthquake prediction is so difficult

A
  • No reliable precursor
  • No reliable way to measure stress or know how much stress a fault can handle
  • For most faults, there is no clearly definable periodic earthquake behavior
89
Q

Define Magnitude and what is used to measure it

A

A standard measure of the shaking and/or energy released (objective) Logarithmic scale is used.

90
Q

Define intensity and what is used to measure it

A

A measure of the effects on people and buildings (subjective) Measured by I-XII scale.

91
Q

Shallow earthquakes are located on what kinds of plate boundaries?

A

Convergent, divergent, and transform

92
Q

Deep earthquakes are located on what kind of plate boundary

A

Convergent boundary

93
Q

List common earthquake hazards

A
  • Ground shaking
  • Aftershocks
  • Landslides
  • Elevation Changes
  • Liquefaction
  • Tsunami
94
Q

What kind of fault most commonly produces tsunamis?

A

Reverse

95
Q

Explain what an unconformity is

A

An erosion surface representing a gap in the time between two rock layers

96
Q

What are the 3 kinds of unconformities

A

Angular, disconformity, nonconformity

97
Q

How does an angular unconformity form? How can you ID them?

A
  • Limestone formed (shallow marine conditions) → Uplift & erosion exposes limestone → Limestone folded and eroded during mountain building → New sediment deposited
  • Flat layers overlie tilted layers
98
Q

How does a disconformity form? How can you ID one?

A
  • Limestone formed (shallow marine conditions) → Uplift & erosion exposes limestone → sea level rises
  • Flat layers overlie flat layers
99
Q

How does a nonconformity form?

A

(Igneous or metamorphic rocks are involved) Non layered rock forms below surface → Uplift & erosion exposes the igneous/metamorphic rock at Earth’s surface → Sediment is deposited on top of the igneous/metamorphic rock

100
Q

Describe orignial horizontality

A

Sediments are deposited in flat layers

101
Q

Describe superposition

A

Youngest is on top oldest is on bottom

102
Q

Describe cross-cutting

A

The rock or magma that is cutting through is younger than the rock it is separating

103
Q

Describe inclusions

A

Inclusions found in other rocks or formations must be older than the rock that contain them

104
Q

What is the age of Earth?

A

4.54 billion years old

105
Q

Describe the process of radioactive decay and how it can be used to date rocks

A
  • Each element has a unique atomic number (ex. Potassium (K) = 19 (19 protons)
  • Potassium has three isotopes (same number of protons) identified by their mass numbers
  • Decay occurs when an isotope loses or gains protons and/or neutrons
106
Q

Define half life

A

Time for half of the parent isotopes to be converted to daughter isotopes

107
Q

Explain why radioactive decay typically isn’t all that useful for dating the formation of sedimentary rocks

A

Because decay has already begun for elements in minerals that form sedimentary rocks

108
Q

What is the formula to figure out the age of a rock?

A

Age of rock = number of half lives passed X length of one half life

109
Q

Were there continents on early earth?

A

Yes

110
Q

How did we get water during early earth

A

We got water because of volcanism and comets/asteroids

111
Q

What was the composition of early earth atmosphere?

A

Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide

112
Q

Indicate what the first evidence of life on Earth is and when it occurred

A

A stromatolite and it occurred in the Archean

113
Q

General time period of Earth formation

A

Haden

114
Q

General time period of the age of dinosaurs

A

Mesozoic Era

115
Q

General time period of first evidence of life

A

Archean

116
Q

General time period that complex life evolves

A

Cambrian period

117
Q

General time period of the age of mammals

A

Early Cenozoic

118
Q

General time period for Dinosaur extinction

A

Paleogene period or Cenozoic Era

119
Q

How do rivers get their water?

A
  • From the sky
  • From the ground
  • From things that melt
120
Q

What is a drainage basin?

A

The entire area that provides water to a given river

121
Q

What are the two types of streams?

A

Braided and Meandering

122
Q

Characteristics of a braided stream

A
  • Steep Gradients
  • Coarse sediment
  • Near mountains and or glaciers
  • Generally no floodplain
123
Q

Characteristics of a meandering stream

A
  • Low gradients
  • Fine sediments
  • Low elevations
  • Floodplain
124
Q

As a river flows downstream Channel size

A

Increases

125
Q

As a river flows downstream Discharge

A

Increases

126
Q

As a river flows downstream flow velocity

A

Increases

127
Q

As a river flows downstream Grain size

A

Decreases

128
Q

As a river flows downstream sediment load

A

Increases

129
Q

What is a hydrograph used for?

A

Used to track stream flow over time

130
Q

Explain what a food is and what can cause a flood?

A
  • A temporary overflow of a river onto adjacent lands not normally covered by water
  • Hurricanes, storms, and snowmelt
131
Q

Define recurrence interval

A

The chances of another specific type of flood will occur

132
Q

What are some steps communities take to prevent or adjust to floods?

A
  • Artificial Levees
  • Flood Control Dam
  • Buildings on stilts
  • Flood control channel
133
Q

How does urbanization affect the nature of flooding?

A

Higher max discharge, shorter flood duration

134
Q

List multiple reasons why Earth is hospitable to life, but other planets are not

A
  • Liquid water
  • Gravity and a protective atmosphere
  • Life-sustaining gases
  • A strong magnetic field
  • Biosphere
135
Q

List the most common gases found in earth’s atmosphere and their relative proportions

A
  • Nitrogen 78%
  • Oxygen 21%
  • Other 1% mostly made up of greenhouse gases
136
Q

Six steps of the greenhouse effect

A
  1. Radiation from the sun travels to the Earth
  2. About half is reflected or absorbed by clouds and the atmosphere
  3. The rest reaches earth, where it is absorbed by oceans and land
  4. Earth also releases heat back toward space
  5. Some of this heat passes directly through the atmosphere
  6. But most of it is captured and re-radiated in all direction by greenhouse gases
137
Q

Explain the difference between weather and climate

A

Weather is what the current forecast is currently and climate is the average forecast based on long term averages

138
Q

Name some reasons why locations with similar latitudes can have vastly different climates

A
  • Proximity to large bodies of water
  • Jet streams
  • Wind currents
139
Q

Explain why, in general, average yearly temperatures decrease from the equator to the poles?

A

because of cold air

140
Q

Explain why oceans have a smaller yearly temperature range than continents and how the oceans influence global climate.

A
  • Because it takes them longer to heat up and cool down

- They absorb heat and gases and carry heat from the equator to the poles

141
Q

What is albedo

A

How reflective a certain surface is

142
Q

How does albedo influence climate variability?

A
  • More absorption = planet warms

- More reflection = planet cools

Geoscience (4 decks)

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