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biology ii > Final Review Questions > Flashcards

Final Review Questions Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards
1
Q

Define the term variable and explain its importance in an experiment.

A

Variables are names that are given to the variance we wish to explain. A variable is either a result of some force or is itself the force that causes a change in another variable. In experiments, these are called dependent and independent variables respectively.

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2
Q

List the levels of organization in biology from atom to biosphere

A

atoms - molecules - organelles - cells - tissues - organs - organ systems - organisms - population - community - ecosystem - biosphere

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3
Q

Explain how the isotope P32 is different than the isotope P31

A

both of these isotopes have a different number of neutrons

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4
Q

Ionic bond components

A
  • between a metal and a nonmetal
  • loosing electrons
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5
Q

Polar covalent bond components

A

atoms with different electronegativities share electrons in a covalent bond

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6
Q

Nonpolar covalent bond components

A

two atoms share a pair of electrons with each other

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7
Q

Hydrogen bond components

A

the lone pair of a highly electronegative atom (typically N, O, or F) and the hydrogen atom in a N–H, O–H, or F–H bond

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8
Q

Similarities throughout the different types of bonds

A
  • all of the bonds are forming to make a more stable element
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9
Q

Differences throughout the different types of bonds

A
  • Covalent bonds share evenly, polar share unevenly, and ionic bonds don’t share at all
  • each bond has a different strength level
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10
Q

What is the number of valence electrons available for bonding in carbon

A

4 valence electrons

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11
Q

What is the number of valence electrons available for bonding in oxygen

A

6 valence electrons

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12
Q

What is the number of valence electrons available for bonding in hydrogen

A

1 valence electron

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13
Q

What is the number of valence electrons available for bonding in nitrogen

A

5 valence electrons

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14
Q

What makes a molecule polar

A

molecules that have a dipole or an uneven distribution of charge across their geometry resulting in one side being positive and the other side negative

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15
Q

What makes a molecule non- polar

A

symmetric with no unshared electrons

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16
Q

What functional groups are polar?

A

Carbonyl , Hydroxyl , Sulfhydryl

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17
Q

What functional groups are non polar?

A

Methyl

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18
Q

Are non polar molecules able to form hydrogen bonds?

A

can’t participate in hydrogen bonding interactions

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19
Q

Are polar molecules able to form hydrogen bonds?

A

polar molecules do in fact form hydrogen bonds

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20
Q

Are non polar molecules water soluble?

A

non-polar compounds are not soluble in water

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21
Q

Are polar molecules water soluble?

A

polar molecules are able to dissolve in water

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22
Q

What properties of water make it necessary for life here on earth?

A
  • cohesion
  • adhesion
  • soluble
  • temperature ‘control’
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23
Q

Why is carbon an important molecule?

A

Carbon binds to oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen covalently to form the many molecules important for cellular function

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24
Q

What are the four major groups of organic compounds?

A
  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
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25
Q

What molecules do carbohydrates contain?

A

C, H, O

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26
Q

What functional groups do carbs contain?

A

Hydroxyl

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27
Q

What is the purpose of carbs?

A

act as an energy source, help control blood glucose and insulin metabolism, participate in cholesterol and triglyceride metabolism, and help with fermentation

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28
Q

What is the monomer and polymer of a carb?

A

monomer: monosaccharide
polymer: polysaccharide

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29
Q

What shape doe carb molecules form?

A

ring shapes

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30
Q

What molecules do lipids contain?

A

C, H, O

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31
Q

What functional groups do lipids contain?

A

Carboxyl

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32
Q

What is the purpose of lipids?

A

Within the body, lipids function as an energy reserve, regulate hormones, transmit nerve impulses, cushion vital organs, and transport fat-soluble nutrients

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33
Q

What is the monomer and polymer of lipids?

A

monomer: glycerol and fatty acids
polymer: triglyceride

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34
Q

What shape do lipid molecules form?

A

Branch, Linear, Long Chain

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35
Q

What molecules do proteins contain?

A

C, H, N, O

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36
Q

What functional groups do proteins contain?

A

Amino, Carboxyl

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37
Q

What is the purpose of a protein?

A

build and repair muscles and bones and to make hormones and enzymes

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38
Q

What is the monomer and polymer of proteins?

A

monomer: amino acid
polymer: polypeptides

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39
Q

What shapes do protein molecules form?

A

Branch

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40
Q

What molecules does nucleic acid contain?

A

C, H, N, O, P

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41
Q

What functional groups does nucleic acid contain?

A

Hydroxyl, Amino, Phosphate

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42
Q

What is the purpose of nucleic acid?

A

carry genetic information which is read in cells to make the RNA and proteins by which living things function

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43
Q

What is the monomer and polymer of nucleic acid?

A

monomer: nucleotides
polymer: dna

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44
Q

What shapes do nucleic acid molecules form?

A

combination

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45
Q

What is the formula for dehydration synthesis?

A

CH3CH2OH → H2C=CH2 + H2O

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46
Q

What is the formula for hydrolysis?

A

CH3COOCH3 + H2O —- CH3COOH + CH3OH

47
Q

How do the (R) side chains in proteins affect the shape of proteins?

A

the molecules that are contained in the side chain of proteins can determine how the protein folds and functions

48
Q

How would substituting a polar molecule with a non polar molecule affect a proteins shape?

A

polar molecules are hydrophilic which would make this molecule want to do the opposite of the non polar molecule which is hydrophobic. The protein would end up folding differently and in turn change the function of the protein

49
Q

How heat and pH changes can interfere with a protein’s structure and function?

A

a change in pH or temperature can cause a protein molecule to denature which changes the 3D structure of a molecule

50
Q

What is the structure of ATP and how it stores energy?

A

a nucleoside triphosphate, consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a ribose sugar, and three serially bonded phosphate groups

it provides readily releasable energy in the bond between the second and third phosphate groups

51
Q

What is the relationship between exergonic and endergonic reactions in metabolism?

A

In an exergonic reaction, energy is released to the surroundings. The bonds being formed are stronger than the bonds being broken. In an endergonic reaction, energy is absorbed from the surroundings

52
Q

What is an enzyme and what do they do?

A

Enzymes are proteins that help speed up chemical reactions in our bodies

53
Q

What are the important properties of enzymes?

A

they increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction

54
Q

how enzyme function is affected by pH

A

When the pH is above the optimal level, the enzyme is denatured

55
Q

how enzyme function is affected by temp

A

Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows down a reaction

56
Q

how enzyme function is affected by substrate concentration

A

increases the rate of reaction to a certain point

57
Q

Write the reaction for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

58
Q

Write the reaction for cellular respiration

A

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 –> 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + ATP

59
Q

What types of organisms perform photosynthesis?

A

Plants, algae, and a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria

60
Q

What types of organisms perform cellular respiration?

A

animals, plants, and fungi, and also in algae and other protists

61
Q

What are the stages of cellular respiration?

A

glycolysis; the citric acid (TCA) or the Krebs cycle; and the electron transport chain

62
Q

What are the reactants and the products of gylcolysis?

A

reactants: one molecule of glucose
products: two molecules of ATP, pyruvate and NADH

63
Q

What are the reactants and the products of the krebs cycle?

A

reactants: acetyl CoA
products:carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP

64
Q

What are the reactants and the products the electron transport chain?

A

reactants: NADH, FADH2, protons, ADP, and oxygen
products: ATP, oxygen

65
Q

What happened during the process that Griffith called “transformation”?

A

the heat-killed bacteria somehow converted live avirulent cells to virulent cells

66
Q

How did the Hershey and Chase experiment show that DNA was the carrier of genetic information?

A

The protein shell of the virus was tagged with radioactive sulphur, and this ended up in the supernatant. The heavier bacterial cells formed the pellet, so Hershey and Chase knew that DNA was the genetic material of the virus, as the phosphorus was found there

67
Q

What parts of a nucleotide are purine?

A

adenine and guanine

68
Q

What parts of a nucleotide are pyrimidine?

A

thymine (T), cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)

69
Q

Name the enzymes involved in DNA replication in order

A

DNA helicase, RNA primase, DNA polymerase, and finally DNA ligase

70
Q

What is the role of helicase in DNA replication?

A

separate double-stranded DNA into single strands allowing each strand to be copied

71
Q

What is the role of RNA primase in DNA replication?

A

to make, or synthesize, a primer for replication to start

72
Q

What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication?

A

to accurately and efficiently replicate the genome in order to ensure the maintenance of the genetic information and its faithful transmission through generations

73
Q

What is the role of DNA ligase in DNA replication?

A

maintaining genomic integrity by joining breaks in the phosphodiester backbone of DNA that occur during replication and recombination, and as a consequence of DNA damage and its repair

74
Q

Why are DNA molecules only made in the 5’ to 3’ direction?

A

if the DNA molecules were to be made 3’to 5’ it would require too much energy

75
Q

How does this result in a leading and lagging strand?

A

DNA is a double helix and the two strands run in different directions which result in the molecules being added in opposite directions. One strand is going to be added in the 5’to 3’direction and the other strand is added in the 3’to 5’direction, this results in a leading and a lagging strand.

76
Q

List three ways in which RNA is different than DNA

A
  • rna is single stranded, dna is double stranded
  • rna contaisn the base ´U´ instead of ´T´
  • in rna the sugar base is ribose and in dna the sugar base is deoxyribose
77
Q

Name the three types of RNA involved in translation

A
  • mRNA (messenger RNA)
  • tRNA (transfer RNA)
  • rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
78
Q

What is the purpose of mRNA in translation?

A

to carry protein information from the DNA in a cell’s nucleus to the cell’s cytoplasm

79
Q

What is the purpose of tRNA in translation?

A

carrying specific amino acids to the ribosome to build proteins

80
Q

What is the purpose of rRNA in translation?

A

ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA, tRNA, and the ribosomes

81
Q

Codon definition

A

a specific sequence of three consecutive nucleotides that is part of the genetic code and that specifies a particular amino acid in a protein or starts or stops protein synthesis. called also triplet

82
Q

Anticodon definition

A

a trinucleotide sequence located at one end of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule, which is complementary to a corresponding codon in a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence

83
Q

Start codon definition

A

a site where the protein translation initiates

84
Q

Stop codon definition

A

a sequence of three nucleotides (a trinucleotide) in DNA or messenger RNA (mRNA) that signals a halt to protein synthesis in the cell

85
Q

Mutation definition

A

the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes

86
Q

What is the difference between a point shift and a frameshift mutation?

A

Point mutations involve the replacement of one base with another. Frame-shift mutations occur when a base is added or removed from the sequence

87
Q

What is a silent mutation?

A

a type of substitution, or point, mutation, wherein the change in the DNA sequence of the gene has no effect on the amino acid sequence

88
Q

What is a missense mutation?

A

a DNA change that results in different amino acids being encoded at a particular position in the resulting protein

89
Q

What is a nonsense mutation?

A

occurs in DNA when a sequence change gives rise to a stop codon rather than a codon specifying an amino acid

90
Q

Name the cell structures common to all cells

A
  • cell membrane
  • dna
  • cytoplasm
  • ribosomes
91
Q

How are prokaryotic cells similar and different from eukaryotic cells?

A

prokaryotic cells are cells that do not contain a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells contain both a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

92
Q

How do plant and animal cells differ?

A

plants contain chloroplast, a permanent vacuole, a cell wall

animal cells contain lysosomes, vesicles, temporary vesicles

93
Q

Compare and contrast bacteria, plant and animal cells

A

bacteria are prokaryotic, they do not have a nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles. In contrast, plants and animals are made up of eukaryotic cells, which means they have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

94
Q

Describe the structure of phospholipids in the cell membrane.

A

two layers of phospholipids with their tails pointing inward, an arrangement called a phospholipid bilayer

95
Q

What materials can pass directly through the cell membrane?

A

Small nonpolar molecules, such as O2 and CO2

96
Q

What molecules need help from proteins to pass through the cell membrane?

A

Larger charged and polar molecules, like sugars and amino acids

97
Q

How would you find the surface area: volume ratio of a cell

A

the size of the outer edge (surface area) of the cell divided by the amount of space inside (volume)

98
Q

Why is it important that a cell maintains a large surface area to volume ratio?

A

allows for materials to be transported as efficiently as possible into, out of, and around the cell

99
Q

What are two ways that the structure of a cell can be modified to improve this ratio?

A

Some cells have folds in their membranes

100
Q

Describe the processes of simple diffusion

A

small noncharged molecules or lipid soluble molecules pass between the phospholipids to enter or leave the cell, moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

101
Q

Describe the processes of facilitated diffusion

A

molecules diffuse across the plasma membrane with assistance from membrane proteins, such as channels and carriers

102
Q

Describe the processes of osmosis

A

water molecules move from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane

103
Q

Describe the processes of active transport

A

molecules moving against a gradient or other form of resistance, such as from an area of lower to higher charge

104
Q

Describe the processes of exocytosis

A

cells move materials from within the cell into the extracellular fluid

105
Q

Describe the processes of endocytosis

A

the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle

106
Q

Define hypotonic

A

having a lower osmotic pressure than a particular fluid, typically a body fluid or intracellular fluid

107
Q

Define hypertonic

A

having a higher osmotic pressure than a particular fluid, typically a body fluid or intracellular fluid.

108
Q

Define isotonic

A

the state when two solutions have equal concentration of solutes across a semipermeable membrane

109
Q

Explain what would happen to an animal cell placed in a hypertonic solution

A

A cell placed into a hypertonic solution will shrivel and die

110
Q

Explain what would happen to an animal cell placed in a hypotonic solution

A

A cell placed into a hypotonic solution will swell and expand until it eventually burst

111
Q

What is the dependent variable in an experiment?

A

what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during the experiment

112
Q

What is the independent variable in an experiment?

A

a variable that stands alone and isn’t changed by the other variables you are trying to measure

113
Q

Which variable goes on the x axis of a graph?

A

independent variable

114
Q

Which variable goes on the y axis of a graph?

A

dependent variable

biology ii (22 decks)

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