Gender and Culture in psychology (universality and bias)

Question 1

Gender in psychology includes

Answer 1

Universality and Bias, Gender bias

Question 2

Universality and Bias

Answer 2

Many psychologists aim to develop universal theories of human behaviour. When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people. The belief that some behaviours are the same for everyone is known as universality.

However, this aim is challenged and undermined by the issue of gender bias because by striving for universality, gender differences in behaviour tend to be exaggerated or ignored. To generate universal theories that can apply to both males and females, researchers must show the similarities and differences between males and females, without devaluing either gender. This may mean using a variety of research methods and considering women in the natural settings in which they function.

Question 3

Gender bias

Answer 3

The term bias is used to suggest that a person’s views are distorted in some way, and in psychology there is evidence that gender is presented in a biased way. This bias leads to differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences. Gender bias refers to a distorted view of gender differences in behaviour. This distortion can take two forms:

1. Alpha bias
2. Beta bias

Question 4

Alpha bias

Answer 4

this involves an exaggeration of the differences between men and women’s behaviour which can lead to one gender being devalued in comparison to the other.

*For example, Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, and so develop weaker superegos.

*For example, the evolutionary approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery.

Question 5

Beta bias

Answer 5

this involves the assumption that men and women are the same and ignores the differences between them which leads to one gender being misrepresented by psychological research and theory. It is usually the case that research and theory focuses on male behaviour and assumes that any conclusions drawn can be applied to female behaviour too.

*For example, Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development was based on extensive interviews that he conducted with boys aged 10-16. Some researchers, such as Carol Gilligan (1982), have found that women tend to be more focused on relationships when making moral decisions and therefore often appear to be at a lower level of moral reasoning when using Kohlberg’s system. Therefore, Kohlberg’s approach meant that a real gender difference was ignored.

*For example, research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals because they have fewer variations in hormones than females. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both. However, later stress research by Taylor et al. (2000) has challenged this view by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response. The beta-bias in the earlier animal studies meant that for a long time the stress response was not fully understood and a real gender difference was ignored.

Question 6

Impact of gender bias

Answer 6

The impact of gender bias in psychological research is that we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male bias. For a long time, Psychology as a discipline has been very male dominated. The majority of influential psychologists have been male, the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world and, the majority of psychological research tends to involve male participants. This tendency to view the behaviour of men as the ‘norm’ is referred to as androcentrism.

Question 7

Androcentrism

Answer 7

means being centred on, or dominated by, males or the male viewpoint. This can be conscious (the individual knows they are behaving this way) or unconscious.

Question 8

Evaluation of gender bias, strengths

Answer 8

*A strength of discussing the issue of gender bias in psychology, is that it is helping to raise awareness of gender bias in research. This has led some psychologists to develop theories that emphasise the value of women. For example, Cornwell et al (2013) noted that females tend to be better at learning as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising the positive attributes of women. As a result, this type of research helps to challenge gender stereotypes, which can have positive consequences for women in everyday life.

*Furthermore, discussing the issue of gender bias has led Feminist psychologists such as Worrell (1992) to put forward criteria that should be followed to avoid gender bias in research. She suggested that women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and genuinely participate in research, rather than be the objects of study. Diversity within groups of women (eg women who vary by age, socio-economic status, partner preference, minority or ethnic group) should be studied rather than making comparisons between women and men.

Question 9

Evaluation of gender bias, criticism

Answer 9

*Gender biased research may lead to misleading assumptions about female behaviour and be used to support discrimination. For example, Darwin’s theory of sexual selection may lead employers to assume women are less competitive than men, thus providing a scientific justification to deny women certain opportunities within the workplace Gender bias is therefore a problem in psychology as it may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of women.

*It is also important to remember that sometimes the gender bias can work against males as well as females. For example, women are more likely than males to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment. This may be because women are more likely to suffer from depression, or it could be that the diagnostic system may be biased towards finding depression among women. The expectation that males should be able to ‘pull themselves together’ may highlight an issue of gender bias with the diagnostic systems for mental disorders.

Question 10

Culture

Answer 10

Culture refers to the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people. Many factors shape culture.

Question 11

Culture in psychology includes

Answer 11

universality, cultural bias, ethnocentrism, cultural relativism

Question 12

Universality

Answer 12

Historically, Psychology has been dominated by white, middle class American male researchers and participants. Research findings and theories were then generalised, as if culture (or gender) makes no real difference to why we behave as we do. Many of these researchers claimed to have identified universal explanations that apply to everyone, regardless of where they are in the world. This belief that some behaviours are the same for all cultures is known as universality.

Question 13

Cultural bias

Answer 13

Cultural bias is the tendency to make assumptions about the behaviour of people from one culture based on your own cultural norms and practices. It does not mean the same as ‘cultural differences’. It can be better understood by distinguishing between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism

Question 14

Two forms of cultural bias

Answer 14

Alpha bias, Beta bias

Question 15

Alpha bias

Answer 15

This involves an exaggeration of the differences between cultural groups which can lead to one cultural group being devalued in comparison to another. It is usually the case that the beliefs, values and behaviours of cultural groups that are different from our own are devalued and may even be considered inferior. Other cultures are judged and evaluated against our own cultural standards of behaviour (ethnocentrism).

Question 16

Beta bias

Answer 16

This involves the assumption that all people from all cultural backgrounds are the same and ignores the differences that exist between them which leads to the misrepresentation of different cultures in psychological research and theory. It is usually the case that research and theory focuses on western cultures (e.g. the USA) and assumes that any conclusions drawn can be generalised to individuals from other cultural groups. The behaviour of one cultural group is viewed as the ‘norm’ and it is assumed to be the case for all people (ethnocentrism).

Question 17

Ethnocentrism

Answer 17

Ethnocentrism means making judgments based on one’s own cultural perspective, and believing that this one perspective is both normal, correct and often superior. Ethnocentrism is a lack of awareness that other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one’s own.

Question 18

Cultural relativism

Answer 18

Human behaviour can only truly be understood within the specific cultural context from which it originates. This is referred to as cultural relativism. We have to understand the particular views, values and norms of a culture before we can evaluate and understand the behaviour of the individuals that belong to that culture.

Question 19

Evaluation of Culture in Psychology, strength

Answer 19

*From a positive perspective, an awareness of cultural bias has created greater recognition of cultural diversity. This has led to the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’- theories drawing explicitly on the particular experiences of people in different cultural contexts. One example is Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of behaviours and attitudes. This is an example of an emic approach, which emphasises the uniqueness of every culture and looks at behaviour from the inside of a particular cultural system.

*Furthermore, an awareness of cultural bias has also had a positive impact in the field of diagnosing mental disorders. Early versions of the American DSM system virtually ignored mental disorders that are found mainly or exclusively in non-American cultures. DSM-IV in 1994 acknowledged the inadequacy of that approach and included a short appendix on culture-bound syndromes found in other parts of the world.

Question 20

Evaluation of Culture in Psychology, real world effects

Answer 20

*Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

Question 21

Evaluation of Culture in Psychology, criticism

Answer 21

*However, researchers in the field of psychology are beginning to recognise the effect that cultural bias can have on their work. Researchers travel more than they once did. They hold conferences where they collaborate, discuss and exchange ideas with researchers from other cultures. This awareness and exchange of ideas will help to reduce ethnocentrism and increase understanding of cultural relativism, shaping future research for the better.