Gender and Society

Question 1

What factors have changed the family social landscape in Britain?

Answer 1

Factors that have changed the family social landscape in Britain include:

• Ease of divorce
• Decline in marriage
• Wedding cerremonies
• Single parents
• Gay and Lesbian relationships
• Cohabitation
• Blended families / step children.

Question 2

What is the definition of feminism?

Answer 2

Feminisim is defined as the political, philosophical, economic, psychological and sociological movements that sought to free women from male dominance, granting them independence and dignity.

Question 3

Who was Harriet Taylor?

Answer 3

Harriet Taylor was a philosopher who set out, in her book Enfranchisement of Women (1851), ‘equality in all rights, political, civil and social, with the male citizens of the community’.

She also argued that true partnership between men and women meant equal pay and financial independence.

Question 4

What social reform has been brought about by first wave feminists in recent years?

Answer 4

In recent years, first wave feminists have brought about social reform such as:

• State-funded child-care
• Flexible working hours
• Maternity leave for women

Question 5

What is meant by something that is patriarchial?

Answer 5

Patriarchial is a term used to describe a culture or institution that is male dominated.

Question 6

What was the second wave of feminism?

Answer 6

The second wave of feminism gave birth to the idea that true equality was only possible once the mindsets and attitudes of both men and women changed, otherwise society would remain patriarchial.

Question 7

Who was Betty Friedan?

Answer 7

Betty Friedan was a key figure of second-wave feminism.

Her book The Feminine Mystique (1963) showed how women in the 1950s who played the role of the housewife felt unfulfilled, according to research evidence.

When women learnt that the role that they felt obligated to play was disliked by other women, they felt the courage to abandon this expectation and pursue their own independent careers and lives.

Question 8

What is the false-consciousness argument for feminism according to Simone de Beauvoir?

Answer 8

False-consciousness is a term used to describe a falsely objective view a person has of oneself. In this state, that person lacks freedom and self-worth.

Simone de Beauviour states that women have allowed themselves to be the second sex for centuries and to fulfil the needs of the man. They cannot live fulfilling lives in this state of false-consciousnes

Question 9

What did Simone de Beauvoir say about feminism in The Second Sex?

Answer 9

‘One is not born, but rather becomes a woman. No biological fate determines what the human female presents in society; it is civilisation as a whole that produces this creature. - The Second Sex (1997)

de Beauvoir states that men and women are born without gender roles, but they have become trapped in it by society.

Question 10

What is ‘the eternal feminine’?

Answer 10

Simone de Beauviour states that ‘the eternal feminine’ is the idea the womens’ role, as the second sex, is to be the ideal of what men expect from them; they are the passive bystanders in society.

Question 11

What is the glass ceiling?

Answer 11

The glass ceiling refers to the idea of a barrier preventing women from reaching the top of their careers, even when they may seem qualified to do so.

Question 12

What is the difference (and relation) between sex and gender?

Answer 12

Sex - male or female biologically
Gender - a persons’ masculine or feminine traits

Althought it is assumed that sex determines gender, there have been changes to this over time. The question remains as to whether gender is partially related to sex or if it is a social construct and the result of upbringing.

Question 13

What is the essentialist view?

Answer 13

The essentialist view states that feminine and masculine characteristics are not the product of society but rather biology and nature.

An argument in support of this view is that womens’ bodies are meant to be more nurturing to bear children, whilst mens’ bodies are meant to be more muscular, as they are more competitive in the work place.

Question 14

What is the existentialist view?

Answer 14

The existentialist view states that biological sex is of little significance and that gender characteristics are the product of nurture through culture and upbringing.

An argument against this is that male-dominated socities tend to sexualise womens’ bodies.

A counter-argument to this is that different cultures contain different definitions of attractiveness.

Question 15

What is Marx’s notion on human interactions and how does this relate to gender?

Answer 15

Marx stated that human interactions are about which group dominates and controls the other group.

This view has lead to scholars abandoning the existentialist/essentialist debate and focusing on the problem of sexuality from the perspective of power.

Question 16

What is the ars erotica?

Answer 16

Michal Foucalt states that human sexuality cannot be defined in binary terms (homosexual, heterosexual), but rather through a spectrum of sexual practices. (gay, bisexual, transvetite, etc.)

Therefore, the purpose of sex is for pleasure, companionship and education.

Question 17

What is the scientia sexualis and an example?

Answer 17

The scientia sexualis (science of sexuality) is Michael Foucalt’s idea of controlling sexual practices being a useful means of maintaining power.

An example of this is from the Church’s place in western society being maintained by its control and regularisation of men and women’s sexual practices and gender roles through marriage.

The weakening of the Church’s influence has cause its role to be replaced by doctors, psychoanalysts and sociologists, who have all stated their own view of ‘correct’ sexual behaviour.

Question 18

What did Michael Foucalt say about sexuality?

Answer 18

‘Sexuality must not be thought of as a kind of natural given, it is the name that can be given to a historical construct: not a furtive reality that is dfifficult to grasp, but a great surface network.’ - The History of Sexuality: The Will to Knowledge - Michael Foucalt.

Question 19

What does Genesis say about the roles of men and women?

Answer 19

Genesis 1 states that men and women were both created in the image of God and their primary roles are to reproduce and maintain the natural order of the world.

Genesis 3 states that women will be mothers, ruled over by their husbands, whilst men work and provide food for the family.

Question 20

What is God’s covenant ideal?

Answer 20

God’s covenant ideal is his re-establishment of human relationships through a series of biblical commands.

This happens after the fall, where human nature has become so distorted that men and women cannot live according to the natural order alone.

Question 21

What is the story of Mary and Martha?

Answer 21

Luke 10:38-42
Mary listens to Jesus’ teaching, preparing her for the role of becoming a disciple or teacher - roles typically occupied by men, however, Martha is criticised because she can only think about her domestic duties.

Martha represents the older traditional female gender role, whereas Mary represents the newer extended female gender role.

Question 22

How did St Paul describe the new covenant’s effect on gender and family?

Answer 22

‘As many of you were baptised into Christ have clothed yourself with Christ. There is no longer male or female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus.’ - Galatians 3

This represents Paul’s vision of a new social order founded on Christian values of co-operation and friendship, free from existing, unfair social structures.

Question 23

What are household rules?

Answer 23

Household rules were developed in ancient Greek and Roman societies, and they listed the duties to be performed by each member of the household.

This is an example of a vision of a fairer, more balanced society, which was seen as a challenge to the natural order of the time.

Question 24

What was the Letter to the Ephesians?

Answer 24

St Paul’s letter to the Christian community in Ephesus. The letter covers a wide range of moral issues, which are necessary for the ordering of Christian church communities.

Question 25

What advice does the Letter to the Ephesians give regarding gender roles to women in Christian church communities?

Answer 25

‘Wives, be subject to your husbands as you are to the lord’.

‘The husband is the head of the wife just as Christ is the head of the Church’.

‘Head of the wife’ can be interpreted as:
- Subservient to the husband’s will
- Source of life (Genesis 2 - the man is the source of woman’s creation)
- Obedient to one another (Ephesians 5 - be obedient to one another)

Question 26

What advice does the Letter to the Ephesians give regarding gender roles to men in Christian church communities?

Answer 26

‘Husbands love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her’.

Husbands should care for their wives just as much as he loves his own body, which doesn’t just refer to physical but also relationships between people.

Question 27

What are some examples of patriarchy in the New Testament?

Answer 27

1 Peter 3:7 refers to women as the ‘weaker sex’

1 Timothy 2:11-14 states ‘I permit no women to teach or to have authority over a man, for Adam was formed first, then Eve.

Question 28

What is the Conservative Protestant Christian view?

Answer 28

The Conservative Protestant Christian teaching largely takes into view that biblical theory is timeless and should resist buying into secular changes in society. The Bible is the foundation for many of its teachings.

Question 29

What is the Conservative Protestant idea of ‘equal but different’?

Answer 29

Equal but different refers to the idea that although women and men have distinct gender differences, they are equal in status. This is because:

• God created men and women different from the start (Genesis 1)
• God made sure men and women had different gender roles, and society functions best when these roles were fufilled.

This is an existentialist idea of gender - determined by biological sex as opposed to society and upbringing.

Question 30

What is the Conservative Protestant idea of the role of the woman and why?

Answer 30

Conservative Protestants state that the role of the woman is:

• Create a domestic haven where her husband can escape the external world.
• Bring life into the world, nurture it, lead it into the knowledge of God.

This is because of Eve, whose name means ‘the mother of all living’.

Question 31

According to Conservative Protestant theology, when may a woman work?

Answer 31

A woman may work if she is also able to carry out her domestic duties and the work doesn’t detract from her role as a mother.

An example of this is the ‘capable wife’ from the Bible.

Question 32

What is the Conservative Protestant idea of the role of the man?

Answer 32

A man’s role is to be a companion for his wife by providing for the family and assisting in the education and discipline of his children.

‘And whoever does not provide for family members is worse than an unbeliever’ - 1 Timothy.

Question 33

Why are Conservative Protestants critical of non-heterosexual families?

Answer 33

Conservative Protestants argue that the Bible’ account of the order of creation requires parents to complement each other in terms of gender - families with same-sex gender are not truly families in a Christian sense.

Question 34

Why are Conservative Protestants critical of non-married families?

Answer 34

Conservative Protestants endorse research that suggests that children do less well educationally and that couples are less happy in blended families, single-parent families and non-married partners cohabiting.

Question 35

Why are Conservative Protestants critical of feminism?

Answer 35

Conservative Protestants argue that:

• Feminism has lead to the treatment of women as sexual objects (Foucault - love is for pleasure rather than commitment)
• There is no compulsion to make relationships work due to ease of divorce and social acceptance of cohabitation.

Question 36

What is the Liberal Protestant Christian view?

Answer 36

Liberal Protestants accept secular insights on questions of gender and family that wouldn’t be accepted by conservatives.

Their interpretation of the Bible is as a sourcebook of experiences rather than revelation.

Question 37

What is the Liberal Protestant view on Gender Roles?

Answer 37

Liberal Protestants follow the idea that gender is not intrinsic in nature, because of the convenant with God which serves as a human reflection on what it means to be in a relationship with God.

Question 38

Why may Liberal Protestants question Foucalt’s view on sex?

Answer 38

Foucalt reduces love to just eros (sexual pleasure), however, Liberal Protestants believe sex makes up not just eros, but also philos (friendship) and agape (generous love as expressed in the God-human covenant)

Question 39

What is the Liberal Protestant view on motherhood and parenthood?

Answer 39

Liberal Protestants believes motherhood holds no particular significance; there is no imperative that parenthood is something adults should strive to achieve.

Liberal Protestants also acknowledge that not all adults can be good parents, which in turn encourages them to find a different goal in life.

They encourage the idea of De Beauviour and Friedan’s feminism, and that Mary is a stereotyped symbol of womanhood.

Question 40

Why do Liberal Protestants believe that their churches need to be more flexible and exercise ‘justice love’?

Answer 40

Liberal Protestants believe that their churches need to be more flexible due to Jesus’ teaching on the Kingdom of God, which was based on a new covenant idea suggested by Jeremiah, that contained a social order that was more inclusive, non-heirarchial and non-judgemental.

Question 41

What does Jessie Bernard say about non-traditional families, according to Liberal Protestants?

Answer 41

Jessier Bernard provides research evidence that children feel just as provided for in a family with same-sex, blended or single parents as much as regular heterosexual parents.

This view persuades Liberal Protestants to justify non-traditional families.

Question 42

What does the Bible say about non-traditional families, according to Liberal Protestants?

Answer 42

Liberal Protestnats state that the Bible itself has illustrated that there hasn’t been one type of family; they are described more as a ‘community of friends’ than through blood kinship, suggesting a more inclisive model of family:

‘Whoever does the will of God is my brother and sister and mother’ - Mark 3.

Question 43

What does Don Browning say about Liberal Protestant theology?

Answer 43

‘Although the liberal theological response should be applauded for its sense of justice, it was slow in recognising the depth of family disruption and evidence to suggest that social acceptance were adequete remedies.’ - Don Browning The Cambridge Companion.

Question 44

What is the Roman Catholic view on feminism?

Answer 44

The Roman Catholic view is ambivalent on feminism:
- On one hand, it raises the dignitiy of women in society.
- On the other hand, its secular agenda diminishes the gender differences between men and women.

Question 45

What is the Mulieris Dignitatem?

Answer 45

The Mulieris Dignitatem is a letter issued by Pope John Paul II in 1988. The letter acknowledges how the relationship and roles of men and women have not always been understood well, and it aims to correct this.

Question 46

How does the Mulieris Dignitatem attempt to carry out its purpose?

Answer 46

The purpose of the Mulieris Dignitatem is to correct the mistreatment of the roles of men and women, not by using the language of womens’ rights, but rather by using the Bible, tradition and natural law as its foundations.

Question 47

What is the importance of theoktos and how does it relate to the Mulieris Dignitatem?

Answer 47

Theoktos is ‘God-bearer’, referring to Mary’s role as the mother of God. The example of Mary is what lies at the heart of the Mulieris Dignitatem.

Mary’s role illustrates the special role of women in the process of salvation, as because she gave birth to Christ, she illustrates the human virtues of obedience and dignity for men and women.

Question 48

What is the basic Christian notion of gender according to the Mulieris Dignitatem?

Answer 48

The Mulieris Dignitatem states that men and women are made equally in the image and likeness of God (rejecting the traditional view of the man being the active and the woman being the passive principle).

It also states that the Church does not accept the existentialist view of gender being entirely environmentally determined.

Question 49

How does the Mulieris Dignitatem interpret the idea of the man being the ‘head of the woman’?

Answer 49

‘What is expressed in the Biblical words, ‘He shall rule over you’, must not lead to the masculinisation of women’.

Although the Mulieris Dignitatem makes it clear that the man is the ‘head’ of the woman, it makes it clear that the man and the woman are equals, and being the ‘head’ of does not imply dominance or possession.

Question 50

How does the Mulieris Dignitatem respond to women in society and feminism?

Answer 50

The Mulieris Dignitatem places motherhood at the heart of the letter, acknowledging the positive social shift in attitudes to women in recent times, however, it rejects the kind of feminist criticisms laid out by those such as De Beauvoir which state that motherhood may be a burden to women.

It makes such arguments as:

• Mary illustrates the special value God places on motherhood.
• A child is a sign that the mother and father have become ‘one flesh’.
• The role of the parent is shared with the mother and father.
• It follows God’s covenant in that the man learns from the woman how to be a good father.

Question 51

What is the Roman Catholic view on different types of family?

Answer 51

The Roman Catholic Church supports sociological evidence that suggests that children raised in intact families with heterosexual parents are more developed psychologically than children not raised in these environments.

Question 52

What is the Roman Catholic feminist response?

Answer 52

Due to the rise of second wave feminism, Catholic women gained the motivation to reform the Catholic Church, due to the belief that their teachings have become institutionally patriarchal.

Question 53

What is the argument that Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza makes for Roman Catholic Feminist theology?

Answer 53

‘Women were not marginal in the earliest beginnings of Christianity, rather, biblical texts produce marginality of women’.

Elisabeth Shüssler Fiorenza makes the argument that in early Christian history, there were many significant women leaders, such as Priscilla, Apphia and Phoebe, something the Church has consciously written out of Christian history.

Question 54

What is the argument that Catharina Halkes makes for Roman Catholic feminism?

Answer 54

Catharina Halkes argues that as Jesus’ teaching on the Kingdom of God required social and spiritual transformation, women must learn to develop their gift of care into the public sphere, whilst men give up their privileged sense of entitlement and learn the virtue of care in the everyday.

This is a criticism of the teaching in the Mulieris Dignitatem, as it fails to extend female/male mutuality far enough, as well as privileging the role of the man in the public sphere.

Question 55

What is the Roman Catholic Feminist view on motherhood and parenthood?

Answer 55

Roman Catholic Feminists argue that although the Church’s teaching on motherhood is over-romanticised, they would not go as far as condemning Simone de Beauvoir’s condemnation of motherhood. They agree with the argument that motherhood should be an option, not a burden.

Question 56

Why do Roman Catholic Feminists disagree with the Mulieris Dignitatem?

Answer 56

Roman Catholic Feminists disagree with the Mulieris Dignitatem, as although it attempts to accommodate more liberal views of women, it defines women entirely in terms of motherhood; something that is an underlying patriarchal bias.

Question 57

What is the alternative view of Mary according to Roman Catholic Feminists?

Answer 57

In Latin America, Mary is not viewed as the model of a mother, but rather as a working single mother, coping with failure. This has caused Roman Catholic Feminists to seek to broaden and extend the Church’s narrow view of the family to be more inclusive and less judgemental.