Gender bias. Flashcards
Universality and bias.
- Psychologists possess beliefs and values that have been influenced by the social and historical context within which they live. Therefore, bias may be an inevitable aspects of the research process.
- This is despite the arguments psychologists might make to have discovered ‘facts’ about human behaviour that are ‘objective’ and ‘value-free’.
- It undermines psychology’s claims to universality - that conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere regardless of time, culture or differences.
- when universality is applied to gender, it means all research is assumed to apply equally to both male and females, but we know this is not the cause = gender bias.
What is alpha bias?
The attempt to exaggerate the differences between males and females, such as differences are typically presented as fixed or inevitable. These differences are more likely to devalue females in relation to their male counterparts.
Example of alpha bias research - Freud.
- Freud argued there are genuine differences between men and women (e.g. penis envy and femininity as a failed form of masculinity).
- Freud suggested that women develop a weaker superego (morality principle) meaning they are more liable for immoral behaviour argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identity with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos.
- Critics argued Freud overlooked the fact that men are more likely to harbour jealousy of women’s ability to conceive and bear children (‘womb envy’).
What is beta bias?
Beta bias theories have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.
example of beta bias research.
- Early research on fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate) and was assumed to be universal response to a threatening situation = female response has been ignored/minimised.
- However, Taylor et al (2002) suggested female biology has evolved to prevent the fight/flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriending).
- Result of beta bias in psychological research is that we end up with view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male or androcentric bias.
What is androcentrism?
- Consequence of beta bias in psychological research which results in a male-centred or male-biased view of the world.
- Male behaviour and masculine traits are judged to be the norm/desirable, whereas female behaviour and feminine traits are judged to be abnormal/undesirable.
Example of androcentrism.
- Feminists have objected to diagnostic category pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) on the grounds that it stereotypes and underestimates the female experience.
- Critics claim PMS is social construction which medicalises female emotions, especially anger, by explaining these in hormonal terms. Male anger, on the other hand, is often seen as rational response to external pressures.
What does research tell us?
In a review of the research on sex differences, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded there were only 4 differences between boys and girls, including:
- Girls have greater verbal ability.
- Girls are less aggressive than boys.
- Boys have greater visual and spatial abilities.
- Boys have greater arithmetical ability, a difference that only appears at adolescence.
Limitation of gender bias - why is androcentrism a problem for psychological research?
P: A limitation is that the lack of women appointed to senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.
E: Male researchers are more likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence of gender differences are more likely to
appear in journal articles than those that do not. In lab experiments, female participants are placed in an inequitable relationship with
(usually a male) researcher who has the power to label them as unreasonable etc (Nicholson, 1995)
C: This means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of
institutional sexism that created bias in theory and research, (Denmark et al, 1988)
Limitation of gender bias - what about individual differences?
P: Another issue regarding gender bias is that it fails to consider each person on their
own merit.
E: For example, gender bias of all types forces us into thinking that all males are one way and all females are another.
C: This therefore ignores individual differences.
Strength of gender bias - challenging bias.
P: By developing a greater understanding of gender bias, psychologists have put forward a number of solutions. E.g. some have
attempted to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value
of women.
E: Cornwell (2013) noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising the positive
attributes of women.
C: As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes which is important in reducing gender bias.
Strength of gender bias - feminist psychology.
P: A strength is that feminist commentators have put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research.
E: Women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and genuinely participate in research, rather than being objects of study.
Diversity within groups of women should be studied, rather than comparisons made between men and women.
C: This way of doing research may be more preferable and less gender bias.
Ways to avoid gender bias in research:
- Not exaggerate differences between males and females when there are no real differences, avoids alpha bias.
- Not to minimise/ignore real differences between behaviour of males and females, avoids beta bias.
- Use both male and female researchers
- Be sensitive to male and female norms/standards when designing research and reporting findings.
- Don’t extrapolate findings from research with male p’s to female, or don’t extrapolate findings from research with female p’s to males.
