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a&p > General A&P > Flashcards

General A&P Flashcards

1
Q

Cell

A

-Basic organizational unit of all living things
-all cells have in common a membrane, which is comparable to a semi permeable bag
-the membrane is composed of phospholipids
-there are transport holes, which are proteins that help certain molecules and ions move in and out of the cell -the cell is filled with the fluid called cytoplasm or cytosol

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2
Q

Organelles

A

-Groups of complex molecules that help a cell survive
-each with its own unique membrane that has a different chemical make up from the cell membrane
-the larger the cell the more organelles it will need to live

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3
Q

Cells

A

-Contain DNA and RNA and can synthesize proteins
-all organisms have a highly organized cellular structure
-each cell consists of nucleic acids, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane
-specialized organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts have specific functions within the cell and
-in single celled organisms, that single cell contains all of the components necessary for life
-in multicellular organisms, cells can become specialized
-different types of cells have different functions
-life begins as a single cell whether by asexual or sexual reproduction
-cells are grouped together in tissues
-tissues are grouped together in organs
-organs are grouped together in systems
-an organism is a complete individual, the highest level of organization

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4
Q

Ribosomes

A

-Synthesize proteins from amino acids
-make up about 1/4 of the cell
-some cells contain thousands of ribosomes
-some ribosomes are mobile some are embedded in the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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5
Q

Golgi complex

A

-Golgi apparatus
-tags proteins for being transported out of the cell
-located near the nucleus and consists of layers of membranes
-packages proteins and lipid molecules for use in other places and outside of the cell
-transport, sorting and modification of proteins and lipids

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6
Q

Vacuoles

A

sac for storage, digestion, and waste removal
there’s one large vacuole in plant cells
animal cells have small sometimes numerous vacuoles

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7
Q

Vesicle

A

Small organelle
has a membrane
performs various functions, include moving materials within the cell

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8
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell

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9
Q

Microtubules

A

Part of the cytoskeleton
support the cell
made of protein

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10
Q

Cytosol

A

Liquid material in the cell
mostly water, but also contain some floating molecules

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11
Q
A
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12
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Refers to cytosol and the sub structures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus

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13
Q

Cell membrane

A

Plasma membrane
defines the cell by acting as a barrier
keeps cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out
determines what is allowed to enter and exit the cell

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14
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Two types of endoplasmic reticulum rough and smooth
rough ER has ribosomes on surface, smooth ER does not
tubular network that comprises the transport system of a cell
fused to the nuclear membrane and extends through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane

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15
Q

Mitochondria

A

Some cells have one mitochondrion and others have thousands
performs various functions such as generating ATP i
s involved in cell growth
contain their own DNA and is separate from that contained in the nucleus

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16
Q

Mitochondria functions

A

-Production of cell energy
-cell signaling (how communications are carried within a cell)
-cellular differentiation (the process whereby a non-differentiated cell becomes transformed into a cell with more specialized purpose)
-cell cycle and growth regulation (the process whereby the cell gets ready to reproduce and reproduces)
-mitochondria are numerous in eukaryotic cells there may be hundreds or even thousands of mitochondria
-in a single cell mitochondria can be involved in many functions, their main one being supplying the cell with energy
-mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane
-the inner membrane encloses the matrix, which contains the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and ribosomes -between the inner and outer membranes are folds (cristae)
-chemical reactions occur here that release energy, control water levels in cells, and recycle and create proteins and fats
-aerobic respiration also occurs in mitochondria

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17
Q

Animal Cell Structure
Centrosome

A

Comprised of the pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surrounded by protein
-the centrosome is involved in mitosis and the cell cycle

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18
Q

Animal Cell Structure
Centrioles

A

-Cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus that are involved in cellular division
-each cylinder consists of nine groups of three microtubules
-centrioles occur in pairs

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19
Q

Animal Cell Structure
Lysosomes

A

-Digests proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
-transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed
-the shape of a lysosome depends on the material being transported

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20
Q

Animal Cell Structure
Cilia

A

Cingular cilium
-appendages extending from the surface of the cell, the movement of which causes the cell to move
-can also result in fluid being moved by the cell

21
Q

Animal Cell Structure
Flagella

A

-Tail-like structures on cells that use whip-like movements to help the cell move
-they are similar to cilia, but are usually longer and not as numerous
-a cell usually only has one or a few flagella

22
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Nucleus

A

-Small structure that contains the chromosomes and regulates the DNA of a cell
-nucleus is the defining structure of eukaryotic cells, and all eukaryotic cells have a nucleus
-the nucleus is responsible for passing of genetic traits between generations
-nucleus contains a nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, and ribosomes

23
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Chromosomes

A

Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA short for deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA is the genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal

24
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Chromatin

A

Consist of the DNA and protein that make up chromosomes

25
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Nucleolus

A

-Structure contained within the nucleus consists of protein
-it is small, round, does not have a membrane, is involved in protein synthesis, and synthesizes and stores RNA, ribonucleic acid

26
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Nuclear Envelope

A

Encloses the structures of the nucleus
consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids

27
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Nuclear pores

A

Involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

28
Q

Nuclear Parts of a Cell
Nucleoplasm

A

Liquid within the nucleus, and is similar to cytoplasm

29
Q

Cell membrane

A

PM
-thin semipermeable membrane of lipids and proteins
-cell membrane isolates the cell from its external environment while enabling the cell to communicate with the outside environment
-consists of a phospholipid bilayer, or double layer, with the hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing the external environment, the inner layer facing the inside of the cell and the hydrophobic ends facing each other -cholesterol in the cell membrane adds stiffness and flexibility
-glycolipids help the cell to recognize other cells of the organism
-the proteins in the cell membrane help give the cells shape
-special proteins help the cell communicate with its external environment
-other proteins transport molecules across the cell membrane

30
Q

Selective permeability

A

-CM/PM has selective permeability with regard to size, charge, and solubility
-with regard to molecule size, the cell membrane allows only small molecules to diffuse through it
-oxygen and water molecules are small and typically can pass through the cell membrane
-the charge of the ions on the cells surface also either attracts or repels ions
-ions with like charges are repelled and ions with opposite charges are attracted to the cell surface
-molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually pass through the cell membrane
-many molecules are not able to diffuse the cell membrane, and if needed those molecules must be moved through by active transport and vesicles

31
Q

Cell cycle

A

-Refers to the process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, the duplication of genetic material, and cell division
-complex organisms with many cells use the cell cycle to replace cells as they lose their functionality and wear out
-the entire cell cycle in animal cells can take 24 hours, the time required varies among different cell types -human skin cells are constantly reproducing some other cells only divide infrequently ex. once neurons are mature, they do not grow or divide
-the two ways adult that cells can reproduce are through meiosis and mitosis
-when cells replicate through mitosis, the daughter cell is an exact replica of the parent cell
-when cells divide through meiosis the daughter cells have different genetic coding than the parent cells -meiosis only happens in specialized reproductive cells called gametes

32
Q

Cell differentiation

A

T-he human body is filled with many different types of cells
-the process that helps you determine the cell type for each cell is known as differentiation
-another way to say this is when a less specialized cell becomes some more specialized cell
-this process is controlled by the genes of each cell among a group of genes known as zygotes
-following the directions of the genes, a cell builds certain proteins and other pieces that set it apart as a specific type of cell
-ex. gastrulation an early phase in the embryonic development of most animals
-during gastrulation cells are organized into three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm -then, the cells in these layers differentiate into special tissues and organs
-ex. the nervous system develops from the ectoderm, the muscular system develops from the mesoderm, much of the digestive system develops from the endoderm

33
Q

Mitosis

A

-Interphase: the cell prepares for division by replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material, interphase can be further divided into G1, as, and G2
-prophase: the chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate
Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell and spindle fibers begin to form.
The mitotic spindle, formed from cytoskeleton parts, move chromosomes around within the cell -metaphase: the spindle moves to the center of the cell and chromosome pairs a line along the center of the spindle structures
-anaphase: the pairs of chromosomes called sisters, begin to pull apart and may bend. When they are separated, they are called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell membrane
-telophase: the spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membranes reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin. In animal cells, the membrane is pinched. In plant cells, a new cell wall begins to form
-cytokinesis: physical splitting of the cell (including the cytoplasm) into two cells
Some believe this occurs following telophase other say it occurs from anaphase, as the cell begins to furrow, through telophase, when the cell actually splits into two

34
Q

Meiosis

A

-has the same phases as mitosis, but they happen twice
-different events occur during some phases of meiosis and mitosis
-the events that occur during the first phase of meiosis are interphase (I), prophase (I), metaphase (I), anaphase (I), telophase (I), and cytokinesis (I).
-During the first phase of meiosis, chromosomes crossover, genetic material is exchanged, and tetrads of four chromatids are formed the nuclear membrane dissolves homologous pairs of chromatids are separated and travel to different poles at this point, there has been one cell division resulting in two cells
-each cell goes through a second cell division which consists of prophase (II), metaphase (II) anaphase (II), telophase (II), and cytokinesis (II).
-The result is four daughter cells with different sets of chromosomes
-the daughter cells are haploid, which means they contain half the genetic material of the parent cell
-the second phase of meiosis is similar to the process of mitosis
-meiosis encourages genetic diversity

35
Q

Tissues

A

-groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function
-tissues are divided into broad categories based on their function
-animal tissues may be divided into seven different categories
-main categories:
-epithelial tissue: in which cells are joined together tightly ex. skin
-connective tissue: connected tissue may be dense, loose, or fatty. it protects and binds body parts. connective tissues include bone tissue, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat, blood, and lymph
-nervous tissue: located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerve cells called neurons
form a network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment something signals the muscles and glands to trigger responses
muscular tissue: helps support and move the body
the three types of muscle tissue are: smooth, cardiac and skeletal
-cartilage :cushions and provide structural support for body parts it has a jelly–like base and is fibrous
-blood: transports oxygen to cells and removes waste it also carries hormones and defends against disease -bone: hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs. it’s marrow produces red blood cells

36
Q

Organs

A

-Groups of tissues that work together to perform specific functions
-complex animals have several organs grouped together multiple systems
-ex. the heart is specifically designed to pump blood throughout an organism‘s body
-the heart is composed mostly of muscle tissue in the myocardium, but it also contains connective tissue in the blood and membranes, nervous tissue that controls the heart rate, and epithelial tissue in the membranes
-organ systems are groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions
-in mammals there are 11 major organ systems

37
Q

11 Major Organ Systems

A

-Integumentary system
-respiratory system
-cardiovascular system
-endocrine system
-nervous system
-immune system
-digestive system
-excretory system
-muscular system
-skeletal system
-reproductive system

38
Q

Terms of direction
Midline

A

near to midline of the body
in anatomical position, the little finger is medial to the thumb

39
Q

Terms of direction
Lateral

A

-Opposite of medial
-refers to structures further away from the body’s midline at the sides
-in anatomical position the thumb is lateral to the little finger

40
Q

Terms of direction
Proximal

A

-Refers to structure is closer to the center of the body
-the hip is proximal to the knee

41
Q

Terms of direction
Distal

A

-Refers to structures further away from the center of the body
-the knee is distal to the hip

42
Q

Terms of direction
Anterior

A

Refers to structures in front

43
Q

Terms of direction
Posterior

A

Refers to structures behind

44
Q

Terms of direction
Cephald and cephalic

A

-Adverbs meaning toward the head
-cranial is the adjective, meaning of the skull

45
Q

Terms of direction
Caudad

A

-Adverb for meaning towards the tail or posterior
-caudal is the adjective, meaning of the hindquarters

46
Q

Terms of direction
Superior

A

Means above, or closer to the head

47
Q

Terms of direction
Inferior

A

Means below, or closer to the feet

48
Q

Three primary body plains

A

-transverse (horizontal) plane: Divides patience body into imaginary upper (superior) and lower) inferior or caudal) halves
-Sagittal plane: divides the body, or any body part vertically into right and left sections. the sagittal plane runs parallel to the midline of the body
-Coronal (frontal) plane: divides the body or any body structure, vertically into front and back (anterior and posterior sections) the coronal plane runs vertically through the body at right angles to the midline

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