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PSYC 2390 Midterm 1 > Lecture Set 3 > Flashcards

Lecture Set 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What does depth perception depend on?

A

That there is binocular disparity

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2
Q

What is binocular disparity

A

difference between one eye and the other in terms of things in the world = retinal disparity

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3
Q

How can the stereo correspondence problem be solved?

A

In order to measure difference in distance - must choose one object on either side
E.g. police man’s hat - match and compare object’s positions

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4
Q

How can the stereo correspondence problem be solved if there are no objects to match>?

A

Can be done by matching light

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5
Q

What is stereopsis?

A

First thing you have to do is choose a part on either side of the image to match
- if you correctly match an image on the left and right eye –> calculate distance rom eye

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6
Q

What is an auto-stereogram?

A

Depth illusion
“magic eyes” - giving yourself a stereogram with one single image
- always have repetition in them –> invites visual system to make a mistake (think they’re closer or further than they actually are)
E.g. with wall paper - repetitions in image –> easy to make mistake

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7
Q

What is retinal disparity?

A

difference in position (left and right eye)

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8
Q

What is a horopter?

A

curved plane a distance from person’s vision

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9
Q

What are three outcomes associated with retinal disparity?

A
  1. items on horopter
  2. closer to horopter
  3. past horopter
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10
Q

What occurs when an item is on the horopter?

A

Fixation plane - object will lay on exact same position on left and right eye = zero disparity
- no difference between eyes

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11
Q

What occurs when an item is closer to the horopter?

A

Object falls on opposite side of the eye
- reference point in the middle (same position on left/right retina)

= crossed disparity - object in front of horopter (left side on right eye, right side on left eye)

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12
Q

What occurs when an item is further than the horopter?

A

Reference point = same position on left and right retina

= Uncrossed disparity - object is on same side of eye but not on the exact same position

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13
Q

Improvements with accuracy and speed with binocular vision?

A

30% more accurate and 30x more faster (but only at a range of 30m)

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14
Q

What is Panum’s Fusion Area?

A

area where you can fuse left and right image –> 3D depth image
- if something is too close or too far away from horopter –> double images

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15
Q

Explain the tilt after effect

A

adapt to some tilted lines, then show some vertical lines –> see them tilting in the opposite direction of those they adapted to

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16
Q

What does it mean when you say the tilt after effect crosses sides?

A

When you look at slanted lines with just your right and then vertical lines with just your left –> still see after effect (80% of cells respond to information from either eye)

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17
Q

What is a critical period

A

Experiences early on in life which will play an important role on development (4 weeks to 4 months in cats)

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18
Q

Explain the pirate kitty experiment

A

patch one eye on (alternating days)

  • only getting information from the open eye until critical period ends –> never see things from both eyes at the same time
  • retinal binocular cells never develop –> struggle with depth perception (stairs, jumping off things)
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19
Q

What is strabismus?

A

Imbalance of the eye muscles

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20
Q

What is wall-eyed?

A

both eyes are pointing outward

- need to be corrected early for binocular cell development

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21
Q

What does it mean to be cross eyed?

A

Both eyes pointing inward

  • left and right eyes see different things so the brain has to suppress one to avoid double images
  • never get the same info from both eyes –> requires surgery in the first 4-5 years of life
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22
Q

What is the result of strabismus if it isn’t resolved?

A

balance problems, can’t see 3D –> auto-stereogram illusion

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23
Q

What is amblyopia?

A

Cross- or wall-eyed affecting only one eye

  • too big a difference between eyes –> brain can’t bring images into coordination so it ignores the eye with the bad image
  • cells need to develop before the age of 6 or they will never develop at all
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24
Q

What is binocular rivalry?

A

when you have two different images in the left and right eye that can’t be matched
- brain typically suppresses one

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25
Q

What is size constancy?

A

We see objects being the same size despite the changing angle (smaller retinal image)

  • same actual size can produce different retinal images
  • achieved by visual system making use of all the monocular, binocular, pictorial, motion-based, physiological cues
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26
Q

What does it mean by misplaced size constancy?

A

Something further away appears larger = Ponzo Illusion
- depth cues are telling us its further away (pictorial cues) so we factor in depth when we interpret how far something is

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27
Q

Describe the moon illusion

A

moon appears larger when it is closer to the horizon and smaller when it is high in the sky

  • but the moon never changes size
  • linear perspective, texture gradient, atmospheric perspective, but none when you look up in sky
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28
Q

What is Emert’s Law?

A

size of after image changes with the distance away of the surface projected on
- burned out area on retina doesn’t change, but visual system is taking into account depth information (when trying to interpret size of after image)

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29
Q

Explain Ames room

A

Look into room using only one eye (only works with monocular cues)

  • constructed in a weird way so linear perspective doesn’t work properly
  • personal appears to be changing size when they cross room
  • due to lack of binocular depth cues
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30
Q

What is shape constancy?

A

the shape of an image with vary depending on the relative position of image
- factor in depth
E.g. the dime in a box - treats as a 3D image because of cues
- the dime doesn’t actually fit = shape constancy correction

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31
Q

What do both size and shape constancy require?

A

Adequate depth information for them to work

- take depth away –> illusions

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32
Q

What is object perception?

A

ability to see objects as wholes

  • recognizing and visual coordination
  • happens so quickly (we don’t even realize)
  • organizing information into an image
  • difficult because objects can be made up of area that are quite far apart –> pointillistic representation
  • learning from experience (familiarity)
  • combination of perception and memory
  • vision –> representation of object –> store as long term memory
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33
Q

What is pointillistic representation?

A

Each rod/cone knows only about a tiny point of light (not the while thing)

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34
Q

What is the top down theory?

A

Using long term memory (past experiences) to help determine what you perceived
- use context (e.g. bunny or duck?)

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35
Q

What does perceptual set mean?

A

see what you are prepared to see

E.g. just watched a horror movie –> see ghosts everywhere you look

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36
Q

What’s a disadvantage of the top down theory?

A

You see only what you expect to see –> may miss important information
“smart bombs”

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37
Q

What is bottom up theory?

A

building information straight from retina –> gradually built from pointillistic representation

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38
Q

What stages make up the 3 stage model?

A
  1. low level vision (pre-attentive analysis) = bottom up –> spatial parallel
  2. visual routines (analyses requiring spatial attention) –> spatial serial
  3. Visual cognition (object recognition) = top down –> space no longer relevant (memory matching)
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39
Q

Describe low level vision

A
  • everywhere in visual field (calculations occurring all over image) all at once
  • happens automatically
  • categorizing by feature analysis(feature = basic element of an image - line orientation, curvature, colour)
  • finding the discontinuities in an image - brightness or colour (edges)
  • visual system relies on edges
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40
Q

What does ganzfeld mean?

A

featureless - no edges = no differences in brightness and colour

  • all you see is uniform white
  • begin to hallucinate flashes of light
  • eyes begin to cross and uncross but you can’t tell because you are unaware of where your eyes are
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41
Q

How do you know an attribute is a feature?

A
  • determined early on

- visual search task

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42
Q

Describe a visual search task

A

Have a person look at an image to see if a target is there (distractors are also present)
- hit target present as fast as they can it they see target and target absent key if they don’t

This takes time regardless of the amount of items present

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43
Q

What are the Gestalt grouping principles?

A

Proximity, similarity, continuation, closure

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44
Q

Explain proximity grouping

A

more likely to group things that are closer together

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45
Q

Explain similarity grouping

A

more likely to group things that have similar features

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46
Q

Explain continuation grouping

A

basis to see continuous lines

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47
Q

Explain closure grouping

A

basis to see closed figures

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48
Q

Describe the masking study

A 
Target = black dot
Mask = black donut with a white centre the same size as the black dot
  • Little black dot is there for 20ms and then nothing shown after –> you can tell you’ve seen it
  • if instead the mask appears after you’ve looked at the little black dot for 20ms –> see the big black dot (visual system is putting images together)
  • if you wait 100-200ms before presenting mask –> you just see the mask (replacing little black dot)
  • if you wait 200+ ms before presenting mask –> you now see both properly (black dot and mask)
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49
Q

What does the masking study tell us?

A

Registering edges takes time!

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50
Q

What are some side effects of grouping?

A

testure segregation and illusory contours

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51
Q

What is texture segregation?

A

background texture falls apart from different textures (diagonal and horizontal lines)

  • only happens in some situations (e.g. T and L + 2 and 10) - spatial relation between parts differentiates them
  • T and slanted T differ in line orientation –> seen as separate
  • not enough to be in different categories, have to have different feature
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52
Q

What is spatial relation?

A

on top, to the left, inside/outside, connected

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53
Q

Explain illusory contours

A

Formation of illusory contours around objects

  • Kanisza figure - visual system groups by continuation to see imaginary line to form a cube (with abrupt discontinuation)
  • visual system likes to see straight lines
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54
Q

Explain figure/ground segmentation

A

Determining what’s the background and what’s the object in a scene

  • organizational decision (how you organize info)
  • people’s interpretation will determine whether they recognize it or not (stored in long term memory)
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55
Q

figure/ground segmentation and spatial frequency

A

bias to see things with high spatial frequency as the figure

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56
Q

figure/ground segmentation and size

A
  • small = more likely to be image

- large = more likely to be background

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57
Q

Visual routines: analyses requiring spatial attention is used to?

A

create an object file

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58
Q

Describe visual routines

A
  • one area at a time (like a spotlight)
  • trying to find a face in a crowd –> see object as a whole (takes using that one area at a time)
  • E.g. Where’s Waldo
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59
Q

What is a feature analysis

A

E.g. b = vertical line and a circle to the right; blue

- helps differentiate between b, d, q, p (takes time)

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60
Q

How do you know something is spatially serial?

A

Visual search task - present or absent?

- takes more time, the more items there are in the display

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61
Q

Problems that can occur with visual routines?

A
  1. illusory conjunction
  2. integrative agnosia
  3. simultagnosia (Balint’s syndrome)
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62
Q

What is illusory conjunction?

A

Attributes combined - bringing features of one object together with another

  • attention needs time to work
  • happen more when you’re tired - seeing things that aren’t actually there
  • this is why eye witness accounts are often quite inaccurate = “gun focus”
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63
Q

What is integrative agnosia?

A

Brain damage in temporal area

- problem being able to recognize what you see (can see all the parts just can’t put them together = make object file)

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64
Q

What is simultagnosia or Balint’s syndrome?

A
  • occurs at parietal temporal junction
  • can see on thing but not two
  • as long as there is no competition can make object file
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65
Q

Explain the final stage: visual cognition

A
  • space no longer relevant (memory operation)
  • top down processing
  • match object file with one from long term memory
  • some people who can’t recognize what they see, can’t make object file –> can’t match with memory representation
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66
Q

What is motion perception?

A

ability to see things in motion (change)

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67
Q

When is motion necessary for object perception?

A

Motion can define form = grouping by common fate

  • things that move together appear to be part of the same object
  • allows you to form representation of an object
  • e.g. prey freeze so they aren’t seen

Biological motion: Johansson Figures

  • light emitting diodes on joints
  • can tell the difference between a man and women just by the way they move
  • see thing moving in 3D (sex, species, mood)
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68
Q

What is looming?

A

Object getting closer appears larger (e.g. baseball towards face)

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69
Q

What is optic flow?

A

Things changing position on retina

  • use of motion signals to let us know when were falling (balance)
  • visual capture > vestibular: balance
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70
Q

Describe the swinging room experiment

A

walls suspended from chains (hanging straight down)

  • swing towards baby –> think they’re falling forward so they lean back
  • swing away from baby –> think they’re falling back so they lean forward
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71
Q

What is visual capture?

A

vision overcoming all other cues (e.g. muscular, hearing)

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72
Q

What is real motion?

A

looking at visual field and things are really moving

  • we can’t tell the difference between real motion and the motion created by rapid sequences (apparent motion)
    e. g. TV
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73
Q

Explain Gestalt Wertheimer Exner

A

time between frame 1 and 2 determine what you see
- 1 dot in the corner of one frame and 1 dot in another corner of another frame (time between = 30ms) –> we see on picture with dots on either corner

  • if delay between is too short –> static picture with both pictures
  • if time between 60-200ms –> see motion
  • if time between is 30-60 –> gradual movement
  • if time is 200+ ms –> two frames as static images
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74
Q

Two motion processing systems?

A
  1. image retina system

2. eye-head system

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75
Q

Explain the image retina system

A
  • eyes still, but objects have to change position on retina
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76
Q

What system corresponds to the waterfall illusion?

A

image retina

  • stare at falls for some time –> look at static image –> appears to be going upwards (opposite direction)
  • fatigue cells responsive to downward motion
  • cells responsive to upward motion getting least amount of stimulation
  • will not work if you try and track water with eyes (moving eyes)
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77
Q

Explain the eye-head system

A
  • see things as moving even when moving eyes
  • when we track a object (on fovea) still see motion (e.g. following a rolling golf ball)
  • doesn’t necessarily change positions on retina
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78
Q

What is the Aubert-Fleischl Effect

A

Two systems get motion information in different ways:

  • take rapidly moving pendulum –> follow with eyes (back and forth) –> object appears to be moving slower than it really is (using eye muscles to figure out how quickly something is moving) - muscles can’t quite keep up
  • take same pendulum –> keep eyes still and watch pendulum = more accurate of actual speed when using image retina system - looks at position from one point to another as it moves on the retina
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79
Q

Explain the type of cell that allows you to determine which direction things are moving

A

Direction sensitivity
- neurons sending excitatory signal to intermediate cells –> send inhibitor signals to neighbouring neuron intermediate

  • positive response with leftward motion (A to F)
  • no response with rightward motion (F to A)
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80
Q

Where does motion processing begin?

A

retinal ganglion cells

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81
Q

What main structures are involved in motion processing?

A

magno fibers, superior colliculus, lateral geniculate and striate cortex, medial temporal cortex, medial superior temporal cortex, superior temporal area

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82
Q

Describe magno fibers

A
  • big
  • thick axon to deliver motion information to the brain
  • motion sensitive - transient response
  • less common than Parvo but more common in periphery
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83
Q

What is a transient response?

A

responds best to things that are changing

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84
Q

What is the role of superior colliculus?

A
  • contains the tecto-pulvinar system = 10% fibres from optic nerve (ALL magno)
  • motion perception
  • cells respond based on whether you are moving eyes
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85
Q

What system is the superior colliculus involved in?

A

eye-head - controls extra-ocular muscles causing eyes to move

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86
Q

What is the role of the LGN/striate cortex?

A
  • 90% off cells

- emotion perception, complex/hyper-complex cells = respond differently to things that are moving

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87
Q

What system is the LGN/striate cortex involved in?

A

image retina

- waterfall ills is based on motion sensitive cells of the striate cortex

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88
Q

Explain the kitty in the disco study

A

Critical period = 4 weeks to 4 months

  • certain visual experiences for normal vision development
  • stroboscopic displays at discos –> flashes every >200 ms –> complex/hyper-complex cells never develop (appear as static images)
  • important to have real motion (where time between 2 images in between 60 and 200 ms)
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89
Q

What is the role of the medial temporal cortex?

A

Damage –> frozen images

  • cells that respond more, the more visual field is moving together
  • no correlation between movement - cell responds more with consistency (1/2 cells moving in same direction vs. all cells moving in same direction)
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90
Q

What does global motion mean?

A

cells that respond based on coherent motion

  • take two scenes at once –> super impose images at once
  • draws images together (by the medial temporal cortex)
91
Q

What is the role of the medial superior temporal cortex (MST)

A

Motion in depth

  • looming
  • can stimulate by looking at a spiral - as it moves –> can appear to go toward or away from you
92
Q

What system does the MST correspond with?

A

image retina

  • keep eyes still
  • fatigued cells –> blurry image on static image
93
Q

What is the superior temporal areas role?

A

Includes the superior temporal sulcus

  • a combination of motion and object perception
  • Johansson figures
94
Q

What are some problems with motion perception?

A

How do you distinguish movement that comes from us or movement that comes from the world??
- induced self motion illusion

95
Q

What is the induced self motion illusion?

A

E.g. sitting on a train, looking out a window and watching another train - when it moves, it seems as though your moving = changes in visual field and attribute them to ourselves

E.g. driving simulator - car body surrounded by viewing screens

  • car never moves but f you put person in a visual world and cause changes in visual scene —> feels like they’re moving
  • visual capture = ignoring vestibular system and some of the information from muscles
96
Q

What is stimulator adaptation syndrome?

A

in situation for extended period of time –> start to sweat, yawn, sigh, swallow, develop eye strain, headaches, vomit
- very sensitive to mismatch between vestibular and visual system

97
Q

What are some other induced motion illusions?

A

Moving clouds –> makes moon seem like its moving and clouds are staying still (attributing motion to the wrong thing)

Larger things appear to be moving slower than they actually are - under estimate speed (e.g. trains)

98
Q

What assumption does the visual system often make?

A

it’s the small thing moving

99
Q

what is the corollary discharge theory?

A

Theory of how we know real movement vs. eye movement

100
Q

What is the sensory signal?

A

motor cortex sends motor signal to eye muscles

101
Q

What is a corollary signal?

A

signals sent to brain = comparator

102
Q

When is movement signalled?

A
  1. when eyes are still and retina is picking up changes in position
  2. moving eyes, but image remains in the same spot on retina (fovea)
103
Q

Explain the after image associated with eye movements?

A

specific area on retina (especially cells on white) become fatigued –> after image –> start moving eyes –> sends signal to brain saying eyes are moving –> brain thinks you are tracking a moving object and that’s why it stays on fovea

104
Q

What is the curare study?

A

Curare –> parylyzation (can’t make eye movements)
- intention to move –> makes image seem like they’re moving

Therefore, the message splits from motor cortex before it gets to eye muscles = all you need is an INTENTION to move eyes

105
Q

What is the stimulus in hearing?

A

Mechanical energy
- energy that occurs when one molecule hits anything –> causing ear drum to go back and forth –> message sent to inner ear (movement) –> little hairs move back and forth = basis of hearing

106
Q

What is sounds?

A

mechanical energy

107
Q

Does mechanical energy require a medium?

A

Yes

  • requires molecules around it
  • speed of sound depends on medium
108
Q

What is the difference between sound transfer in air vs. water?

A

Air - molecules far apart = sound travels slower

Water - molecule close = sound travels fact

109
Q

What is compression?

A

When molecules get closer together

110
Q

What is rarefaction?

A

When molecules spread out

111
Q

What is amplitude?

A

1/2 wavelength

112
Q

What is amplitude measured in?

A

sound pressure

113
Q

When is amplitude associated with?

A

loudness

114
Q

What is the softest sound we can hear?

A

0.0002 dynes/cm/cm

115
Q

What is a dyne?

A

force required to push 1g

116
Q

What is frequency?

A

how many changes in pressure/second

- dropping a rock in a swimming pool and counting ripples

117
Q

What is frequency measured in?

A

Hz = cycles/second

118
Q

What is a decibel?

A

How much louder is it than the softest thing we can hear

Db = 20log (sound pressure of current sound/sound pressure of quietest thing we can hear; 0.0002)

119
Q

What are some differences noted with frequency and different species?

A
  • Cats/dogs can hear higher frequencies

- elephants can hear higher frequency

120
Q

What is timbre?

A

The quality of sound

- based on shape of sine wave

121
Q

What are complex waves?

A

Most sound waves are complex

  • sum of simple wave forms
  • ear does Fourier analysis = decomposes complex into simple forms
122
Q

What differentiates one voice from another?

A

Timbre

- different combination of frequencies

123
Q

What is the phase angle?

A

has to do with the point of angle that you’re at

  • 0 = normal
  • 90 = compression
  • 180 = normal
  • 270 = rarefaction
  • 360 = normal
124
Q

How does sound interact with objects?

A

reflection, absorption, resonation

125
Q

What is reflection?

A

reflects/bounces off objects

- bats use this to figure out where they are in space (echolocation)

126
Q

What is absorption

A

Absorbed sound

- objects differ in the amount they absorb (carpet = more vs. tile = less)

127
Q

What is resonation?

A

Object begins to vibrate in symphony with sound

- high powerful voice –> vibrate glass –> shatter

128
Q

What happens with two sounds at once?

A

reinforcement, cancelling or alternately cancel/reinforce

129
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

Two sounds at exactly the same frequency (same phase angle) –> BIG sound

130
Q

What is cancelling?

A

Two sounds in opposite phase angles –> NO sound

131
Q

What is active noise suppression?

A

loud rhythmic sound and play it completely out of phase –> sound disappears

132
Q

What is alternately cancel/reinforce also known as?

A

out of tune

133
Q

Where did hearing evolve from?

A

Ancient fish

  • lateral line = hair like cells on outside of body that respond to changes of pressure in water
  • our ear = fluid chamber with little hairs
134
Q

What must our ears do in order to hear?

A
  1. funnel sound in
  2. amplify sounds
  3. transduction
  4. frequency analysis
135
Q

Why must the ear amplify sounds?

A

Sound comes from air (molecules far apart) to fluid filled ear (molecules close) = takes more force to move sound when molecules are close –> increase force of sound

136
Q

What is impedance matching?

A

Increasing the force of sound so it will move fluid = making sound stronger

137
Q

What is transduction?

A

Changing mechanical –> electrical (from action potential)

138
Q

What is frequency analysis

A

take apart complicated tones –> primary aspects

139
Q

What are the structures making up the outer ear?

A

pinnae, auditory canal, eardrum

140
Q

What is the pinnae?

A

Designed to funnel sound into ear

- used to make ears wiggle

141
Q

What is the auditory canal?

A
  1. 5-3 cm long
    - protective function (objects, cold, insects - wax)
    - specific length perfectly designed to resonate speech sounds (2000-5000 Hz)
142
Q

What is the resonate strength column determined by?

A

Length of the auditory canal

143
Q

problems with auditory canal?

A

It can get plugged

  • objects
  • ear wax

Swimmer’s ear
- get water trapped –> warm –> bacterial growth

144
Q

What is the ear drum?

A

Tiny flap of skin (very delicate)

- easy to break = loud sounds (explosions), Q-tips

145
Q

What structures make up the middle ear?

A

The ossicles - 3 bones:

  • malleus = hammer
  • incus = anvil
  • stapes = stirrup

Eustachian tubes

Tensor tympani and stapedius

146
Q

What is the role of the ossicles

A
  • transfer sound pressure to inner ear
  • ear drum moves and pushes against these bones –> bones push inner ear (cochlea)
  • AMPLIFY sound - increase sound pressure = make it louder
147
Q

What principles do the ossicles use?

A
  1. concentration of force into a small area –> more powerful (e.g. stiletto on someones foot)
  2. leverage –> increase power
148
Q

What is impedance matching?

A

air –> fluid (move fluid as much as you’d move air)

149
Q

What are the eustachian tubes?

A

from middle ear –> throat
- equalizing air pressure (opens every time you swallow)

E.g. landing plane: air pressure on outside is lower than middle ear

150
Q

What are the tensor tympani and stapedius?

A

Muscles of the middle ear
- protect inner ear from extremely loud sounds –> contracts and lifts the stirrup a bit away from the cochlea - prevents stirrups from pushing so hard –> reduce intensity of sound = acoustic reflex

  • helps to protect against sounds like teeth grinding
  • can reduce sounds by as much as 30 dB
  • a bit slow to work
  • words best with low frequency sounds
  • most at risk when exercising/dancing - muscles aren’t getting enough nourishment to work properly
151
Q

Disorders of the middle ear

A

Otis media and otosclerosis

152
Q

What is otis media?

A

occurs when a person has a bad respiratory problem (cold) causing buildup of mucus (in eustachian tube) –> bacteria crawls up to middle ear –> fluid production –> can burst ear drum

  • affects hearing (ossicles don’t move right)
  • kids prime - short tube –> drain fluid/surgery
  • reoccurring –> cholesteatoma = scar tissue
  • antibiotics used to kill bacteria
  • infection can lead to brain (brain blocked from normal immune system = vulnerable cells)
153
Q

What is otosclerosis?

A

when the stapes get fused (bone growth) –> can’t move properly –> deafness

  • Beethoven
  • hereditary
  • replace stapes with artificial one = stapedectomy
154
Q

What is conduction deafness?

A

Sound isn’t being properly conducted from outer to middle ear
- hearing aid used to make sounds louder –> get ear drum/bones moving

155
Q

What are the main structures of the inner ear?

A

semi-circular canals, cochlea

156
Q

What are the semi-circular canals?

A

3 canals which respond to different movements

  • pitch –> causes fluid in one canal to move (falling forward/backward)
  • roll –> back and forth (to the side)
  • yaw –> twisting left and right
  • fluid filled chambers with little hair cells
  • involved in balance = vestibular system - as you move –> fluid moves too –> stimulates hair cells to move
157
Q

What is the cochlea?

A
  • size of a bean
  • fluid and hair cells
  • seashell
  • divided into 3 parts:
    1. vestibular canal = scala vestibula
  • where the stapes presses - oval window –> causes fluid to start moving –> pressure wave to travel down entire cochlea –> round window bulges out
  1. cochlear duct = scala media
  2. Tympanic canal = scala tympani

3 chambers contain different materials:

  • perilymph in outer chambers (0val and round window)
  • endolymph in central chamber (cochlear duct)
158
Q

What is perilymph?

A

thin/watery substance found in the oval and round window

- easy to push around

159
Q

What is endolymph?

A

slimy/viscous fluid full of K ions found in the central chamber (cochlear duct)

160
Q

What happens if these two materials mix?

A

Won’t work properly
- Reissner’s Membrane works to keep them separate (2 cells thick) - to allow pressure wave to move all the way down the cochlear duct and to the basilar membrane

161
Q

What is the organ of court?

A

Found in Reissner’s, basilar, tectorial membrane

Contains 15,000 hair cells:

  • Inner hair cells (IHC, 3000) - free to move –> pitch perception (one frequency from another)
  • Outer hair cells (OHC, 12,000) - linked to tectorial membrane –> control the way the basilar membrane moves
162
Q

What is the spiral ganglia?

A

picks up info from hair cells (hair cells –> transduction)

- movement of hair cells: mechanical –> electrical = movement of K ions

163
Q

What are type I spiral ganglia?

A

Get info from IHC = pitch perception

- very big, thick axons –> info must move fast and long distances (like magno cells)

164
Q

What are type II spiral ganglia?

A

Get info from OHC

  • send info more slowly
  • info doesn’t have to go very far
  • go to superior olive = forms feedback loop
165
Q

How do hair cells signal the pitch of a sound (frequency)?

A

Analyze how high/low the note is

166
Q

How is Pitch perceived (2 theories)

A
  1. Frequency Theory (Rutherford) = “Timing Code”

2. Place Theory (von Bekesy)

167
Q

What is the frequency theory

A

How is frequency singled?

  • higher the note –> more AP’s
  • 20 Hz = 20 AP/second
168
Q

What is the problem associated with the frequency theory?

A

We can hear tones up to 20,000 Hz (20,000 waves/second) but a neuron can’t have this many AP –> 5000 AP is the most

THEREFORE, deals with low tones really well, but can’t explain high tones

169
Q

What is a solution to the problem associated with the frequency theory?

A

Volley Principle

170
Q

What is the volley principle?

A

Neurons take turns firing - so together, they can keep up with high frequency tones
- based on soldiers having to take turns firing

Timing is critical - phase lock = every neuron has to to fire at the same phase angle

171
Q

What type of tone does frequency theory deal well with?

A

low frequency

172
Q

What is place theory?

A

Look for place on basilar membrane where neurons are maximally active
- different waves depending on sound

173
Q

What type of wave does a high sound create?

A

peak in fairly close to stapes = short wavelength

174
Q

What type of wave does a low sound make?

A

peak is further down basilar membrane = long wavelength

175
Q

What type of tone does place theory deal well with?

A

high tones

- low frequency –> long gradual curve = not very well defined where peak is (entire area of neurons)

176
Q

What is the motile response?

A

of the outer hair cells; contract/twist –> pin point peak of wave so its easier to localize

177
Q

Why isn’t our pitch perception very good for high amplitude sounds?

A

Only way a neuron can signal intensity –> more APs (ambiguity) = frequency theory

please theory relies on finding peak (# APs/s)
- high pitch –> a bunch of the same frequencies around top of wave (max. 500 AP/s = cells are saturated –> hard to figure out exact pitch)

178
Q

Problems and disorders affecting the inner ear?

A
  1. otoacoustic emissions
  2. sensori-neural deafness
  3. Meziere’s Disease
  4. Effects of smoking
  5. effects of viral infections
  6. effects of aspirin
  7. neural hearing loss
179
Q

What is otoacoustic emissions?

A
  • more of a malfunction based on engineering of ear
  • ears hear and make sounds –> whole system works backwards

OHC wiggle spontaneously –> create ripples in fluid –> push against stapes –> 3 little bonds –> ear drum –> moves back and forth –> sound (20dB)

  • deactivated by aspirin, but also affects hearing
180
Q

What is sensorineural deafness?

A
  • damage to hair cells

Noise induced hearing loss:

  • don’t regenerate and they’re the basis of hearing
  • cause of ringing after hearing loud sounds = tinnitus = warning signs that hair cells are dying
181
Q

What is presbycusis?

A

age -related deficit

  • related to health (circulation) –> lose sensitivity to sounds
  • because hair cells require a constant source of nutrition
  • affects high frequencies first (small area on peak of wave –> only a few cells –> easier to lose)
182
Q

What frequency can babies hear?

A

27000 Hz

183
Q

What frequency can the average adult hear?

A

20000 Hz

184
Q

What is Meziere’s disease?

A

Too much fluid in the cochlea and semi-circular canals

  • kind of like glaucoma
  • produces fluctuating hearing loss
  • frequencies affected varies
  • leads to dizziness, nausea = fluid in semi-circular canals
185
Q

What is the effect of smoking on hearing?

A

affects hair cells

  • variable blood pressure –> starves hair cells of nutrition
  • influences high frequency first
186
Q

What are the effects of aspirin on hearing?

A

deactivates OHC

  • increased sound threshold –> need to be louder to be heard (up to 40 dB louder)
  • most pronounced at high frequencies
  • takes more time to recover from loud sounds
187
Q

What are the effects of viral infections on?

A

viral damage –> random frequencies affects

- high pitched ringing = killing hair cells

188
Q

What is neural hearing loss?

A

varying frequencies affects

- can remove tutor but there will be residual damage

189
Q

What frequencies are we most sensitive to?

A

2000-4000 Hz = human speech

190
Q

What is auditory masking?

A

A sound masking another

  • how much louder does test tone have to be in the presence of masking tone (constant frequency)
  • if similar frequencies must be presented louder in order to be heard
  • principle is asymmetric = masking tone will even mask frequencies higher than it (mens voices masking women’s)

–> can have more than 1 wave on basilar membrane at a time

191
Q

Effects of fatigue and adaptation on hearing?

A

when you hear a loud sound –> long term effecct in ability to hear that frequency again –> sensitivity reduced
- retain sensitivity if you’re in silence for >8 hours

192
Q

What makes up a complex wave?

A

sum of sine waves

- bunch of peaks on basilar membrane

193
Q

What is the fundamental of a wave?

A

lowest frequency in range

194
Q

What are harmonics?

A

multiples of fundamental

- tone = 200Hz: harmonics = 400, 600, 800, 1000…

195
Q

Explain the case of the missing fundamental

A

AKA periodicity pitch

  • present complex wave –> artificially remove lowest frequency but you still hear it
  • can remove the fundamental and even lower harmonics –> still hear 200 Hz
196
Q

What is the chemical stimulus for olfaction?

A

Chemical sense = direct contact

  • substance must give off vapours
  • substance must also be fat soluble –> for smell to stick to the olfactory binding proteins in nose
197
Q

What is the role of the nostrils?

A
  • drawing air/molecules in (30 mL/min)
  • sneezing –> remove particles
  • nostrils take turns throughout day
198
Q

What is the nasal cycle?

A

2-3 hour shifts per notaries

  • can see this in terms of brain activity
  • wider nostril
199
Q

What is the role of the nasal cavity?

A
  • nostrils draw air into nasal cavity
  • warms + humidifies air
  • contains the baffles = obstacle course for air to go through (warm + humidify)
200
Q

What is the olfactory mucosa?

A

Also known as the epithelium

  • on top of the nasal cavity
  • one for each side (size of a dime)
  • made up of many cells and structures = supporting, free nerve endings, olfactory receptor neurons, olfactory bulb and olfactory tract
201
Q

What are supporting cells?

A

secrete mucus - thing doors stick to

202
Q

What is the olfactory binding protein?

A

causes the oder to stick to mucus

203
Q

What are free nerve endings?

A
  • stick right in mucus

- part of the common chemical sense

204
Q

What is the common chemical sense?

A

olfaction, taste, pain

  • stimulating more than one sense at a time
  • tingly feeling from spicy foods
205
Q

What are the olfactory receptor neurons?

A
  • part of the brain (very direct contact)
  • neurons die and are replaced every 5-7 weeks (every 5-7 weeks need to rebuild connection)
  • 100,000,000
  • contain cilia
206
Q

What is the purpose of the cilia

A
  • 6-8 million
  • very delicate
  • can be damaged by drugs (anesthesia)
  • moves to move mucus –> allow us to come into contact with smell
207
Q

What is the olfactory receptor protein and where can it be found?

A

On the olfactory receptors

  • similar chemical structure to photo-chemicals
  • many kinds (mice = 1000; humans = 350)
  • each one is built in such a way that it will pick up certain doors
  • works like a lock and key –> transduction –> calcium enters –> membrane potential increases –> release of neurotransmitters
  • pattern of activity over different olfactory neuron receptors is different depending on smell
208
Q

What is the olfactory bulb?

A

neurotransmitters arrive here

  • axon passes through crib form plate = bone separators –> protection
  • contains the glomeruli
209
Q

what s the glomeruli?

A

input from one type of olfactory receptor neuron

  • each neuron sends output to one or two glomeruli
  • look at pattern of activity
210
Q

What is the olfactory tract?

A
  • neurons exit here

- goes to olfactory cortex

211
Q

What is the olfactory cortex?

A
  • because of its placement –> close relationship between smell and emotion = amygdala & smells that bring back memories = memory retrieval = hippocampus & involved in primary drives = hypothalamus
212
Q

What is the primary olfactory cortex?

A

different smells –> different patterns

- activity = rate of smelling

213
Q

What is the secondary olfactory cortex?

A

top down effects

  • influenced by beliefs
  • cheese vs stinky socks –> activity was different depending on what they were told
214
Q

Disorders of olfaction

A
  1. anosmia

2. olfactory hallucinations

215
Q

What is anosmia?

A

smell blindness

  1. temporary
    - only lasts a period of time (5-7 weeks)
    caused by a # of things:
    - car accident - head injury –> pressure can damage crib form plate –> snipping of axons
    (but neurons regenerate)
    - regeneration takes longer in older people
  2. permanent

General anosmia

  • can’t smell anything
  • often caused by tutor in olfactory area or stroke
  • can remove tumor –> some regeneration but not 100%

Specific type

  • blindness to specific smells
  • because they are missing certain kinds of olfactory receptor proteins
  • genetic
  • from birth
  • fatigue –> oder blindness (e.g. dog)
216
Q

What are olfactory hallucinations?

A
  • occurs when you smell things when there is no physical stimulus
  • can be caused by some virus’
  • schizophrenia - causes people to be confused about what’s going on (perceive things that aren’t there)
  • brain tumours can cause

= due to spontaneous activity in olfactory areas (over-activity)

217
Q

What are pheromones?

A

chemicals that are secreted by animals and used for communication

  • dogs use to mark territory
  • territory, sexual interest, receptivity, attraction, aggression
  • signal mental/emotional state
218
Q

What is a primer effect?

A
  • long term physiological changes

- Bruce effect and McClintock effect

219
Q

What is the bruce effect?

A

smell of strange male in mice cause spontaneous abortion

220
Q

What is the McClintock effect?

A

related to menstrual cycle, synchronization

221
Q

What is a releaser effect?

A

immediate effect on behaviour

E.g. male pig slobber –> androsterone –> females become receptive

222
Q

Is there a pheromone for humans?

A

No really - perfume?

- may be specific pheromones that attract specific people to specific people

223
Q

What is the major histocomptability complex?

A

related to immune system

  • genes that control immune system
  • similar between families = certain smells
  • looking for a partner –> look for different major histocompatabiilty complx –> more robust offspring

PSYC 2390 Midterm 1 (3 decks)

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