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[4] EG > Lesson 1: Causes of Earthquakes and Faulting; Tectonic Plates > Flashcards

Lesson 1: Causes of Earthquakes and Faulting; Tectonic Plates Flashcards

1
Q

a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface

A

earthquake

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2
Q

manifested as ground shaking caused by the sudden released of energy in the Earth’s crust which may originate from different sources

A

earthquake

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3
Q

4 different sources of earthquake

A
  • dislocations of the crust
  • volcanic eruptions
  • man-made explosions
  • collapse of underground cavities (e.g. mines or karst)
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4
Q

defined as natural/earth’s disturbance

A

earthquake

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5
Q

2 types of earth disturbances

A
  • continuous disturbances
  • single disturbances
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6
Q

2 types of continuous disturbances

A
  • artificial
  • natural
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7
Q

2 kinds of artificial continuous disturbances

A
  • traffic
  • machinery
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8
Q

3 kinds of natural continuous disturbances

A
  • meteorological
  • water in motion
  • volcanic tremor
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9
Q

3 examples of meteorological disturbances

A
  • storms
  • wind
  • frost
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10
Q

3 examples of water in motion disturbances

A
  • surf
  • streams
  • waterfalls
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11
Q

2 types of single disturbances

A
  • natural
  • artificial
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12
Q

6 examples of artificial single disturbances

A
  • blasting
  • explosive tests
  • demolitions
  • bombing and bomb tests
  • gunfire
  • accidental large detonations
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13
Q

3 causes of natural single disturbances

A
  • minor causes
  • volcanic shocks
  • tectonic shocks
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14
Q

4 minor causes of natural single disturbances

A
  • collapse of caves
  • large slides and slumps
  • rock burst in mines
  • meteorites
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15
Q

2 kinds of volcanic shocks

A
  • superficial (explosive)
  • magmatic (eruptive)
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16
Q

3 kinds of volcanic shocks

A
  • shallow
  • intermediate
  • deep
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17
Q

tectonic shock is _____ if depth is less than 60 km

A

shallow

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18
Q

tectonic shock is _____ if depth is between 60 km and 300 km

A

intermediate

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19
Q

tectonic shock is _____ if depth is between 300 km and 700 km

A

deep

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20
Q

2 types of earthquake

A
  • tectonic earthquake
  • volcanic earthquake
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21
Q

an earthquake produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries

A

tectonic earthquake

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22
Q

an earthquake induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes

A

volcanic earthquake

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23
Q

plate tectonics is derived from the theory of _____ and _____

A
  • continental drift
  • sea-floor spreading
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24
Q

the theory that explains the formation and deformation of the earth’s surface

A

plate tectonics theory

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25
Q

according to this theory, continents are carried along on huge slabs (plates) on the earth’s outermost layer (lithosphere)

A

plate tectonics theory

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26
Q

earth’s outermost layer is divided into _____ major tectonic plates (80 km deep)

A

15

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27
Q

tectonic plates move relative to each other a few _____

A

centimeters per year

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28
Q

5 evidences for continental drift

A
  • matching coastlines
  • matching mountains
  • matching rock types and rock ages
  • matching glacier deposits
  • matching fossils
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29
Q

earthquake are recognized to be the symptoms of _____

A

active tectonic movements

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30
Q

earthquake occurs predominantly on _____

A

plate boundaries (seismic belts)

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31
Q

large and stable rigid rock slabs with a thickness of about 100km, forming the crust or lithosphere and part of the upper mantle

A

plates

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32
Q

outer rock layer with non-uniform thickness of 25-60 km under continents and 4-6 km under oceans

A

crust

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33
Q

portion of the earth’s interior below crust extending from 30-2900 km

A

mantle

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34
Q

large tectonic forces takes place at the plate edges due to the relative movement of the _____

A

lithosphere-asthenosphere complex

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35
Q

cause of the movement of plates in the mantle

A

convection currents

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36
Q

the velocity of plate movement

A

1 to 10 cm per year

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37
Q

3 principal types of plate boundaries

A
  • divergent or rift zones (tension)
  • convergent or subduction zones (compression)
  • transform zones or transcurrent horizontal slip (shearing)
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38
Q

a type of plate boundary where plates separates from one another either by effusion of magma occurrence or lithosphere diverges from interior of the earth

A

divergent plate boundary or rift zones

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39
Q

in this plate boundary, mid-ocean ridge may form by sea-floor spreading/rifting marking a divergent boundary between two tectonic plates

A

divergent plate boundary or rift zones

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40
Q

a type of plate boundary where plates move apart from each other

A

divergent plate boundary or rift zones

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41
Q

an example of divergent plate boundary or rift zones

A

Mid-Atlantic ridge

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42
Q

a type of plate boundary where adjacent plates converge and collide

A
  • convergent plate boundary or subduction zones
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43
Q

a type of plate boundary where plates come together

A
  • convergent plate boundary or subduction zones
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44
Q

2 types of convergent plate boundary

A
  • oceanic convergent boundary
  • continental lithosphere convergent boundary
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45
Q

2 examples of convergent plate boundary or subduction zones

A
  • Circum-Pacific belt
  • Eurasian belt
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46
Q

a type of plate boundary where two plates glide past one another but without subducting old lithosphere

A

transform zones or transcurrent horizontal slip

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47
Q

a type of plate boundary where plates slide past each other

A

transform zones or transcurrent horizontal slip

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48
Q

an example of transform zones or transcurrent horizontal slip

A

San Andreas fault in California

49
Q

the distorted blocks snap back towards equilibrium and an earthquake ground motion is produced

A

faulting

50
Q

faulting is referred to as _____

A

elastic rebound

51
Q

the resulting fracture in the earth’s crust

A

fault

52
Q

zone of the earth’s crust within which the two sides have moved

A

fault zone

53
Q

a wave generated during the sudden rupture of the brittle crustal rock or faulting

A

seismic waves

54
Q

rocks bend under stress while storing elastic energy; when the strain in the rocks exceeds their strength, breaking will occur along the fault; stored elastic energy is released as the earthquake; rocks “snap back”, or rebound to their original condition

A

elastic rebound theory

55
Q

2 classification basis of active faults

A
  • geometry
  • direction of relative slip
56
Q

5 parameters used to describe fault motion and its dimension

A
  • azimuth (φ)
  • dip (δ)
  • slip or rake (λ)
  • relative displacement (Δu)
  • area (S)
57
Q

the angle between the trace of the fault, i.e. the intersection of the fault plane with the horizontal, and the northerly direction

A

azimuth (φ)

58
Q

value of the azimuth (φ)

A

0° ≤ φ ≤ 360°

59
Q

this angle is measured so that the fault plane dips to the right- hand side

A

azimuth (φ)

60
Q

the angle between the fault and the horizontal plane

A

dip (δ)

61
Q

value of dip (δ)

A

0° ≤ δ ≤ 90°

62
Q

the angle between the direction of relative displacement and the horizontal direction

A

slip or rake (λ)

63
Q

value of slip or rake (λ)

A

−180° ≤ λ ≤ 180°

64
Q

it is measured on the fault plane

A

slip or rake (λ)

65
Q

the distance travelled by a point on either side of the fault plane

A

relative displacement (Δu)

66
Q

if Δu varies along the fault plane, its mean value is _____

A

generally used

67
Q

surface area of the highly stressed region within the fault plane

A

area (S)

68
Q

3 common fault mechanisms of earthquake sources

A
  • dip-slip faults
  • strike-slip faults
  • oblique slip
69
Q

one block moves away vertically with respect to the other; if the block underlying the fault plane or “footwall” moves up the dip and away from the block overhanging the fault plane, or ‘hanging wall’, normal faults are obtained

A

dip-slip faults

70
Q

_____ cause the shearing failure of normal faults

A

tensile forces

71
Q

these are reverse faults characterized by a small dip

A

thrusts faults

72
Q

the adjacent blocks move horizontally past one another

A

strike-slip faults

73
Q

typically, a transform zone

A

strike-slip faults

74
Q

it can be right-lateral or left-lateral, depending on the sense of the relative motion of the blocks

A

strike-slip faults

75
Q

combination of strike-slip and dip-slip movements

A

oblique slip

76
Q

can be either normal or reverse and right – or – left-lateral movements

A

oblique slip

77
Q

a point under the surface where the rupture originates

A

focus or hypocenter

78
Q

3 means of locating a focus or hypocenter can be located t

A
  • by geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude)
  • by focal depth
  • by origin or occurrence of time
79
Q

3 types of earthquakes focal depth

A
  • shallow focus
  • intermediate focus
  • deep focus
80
Q

if the focal depth is 5 km-15 km, it is considered as _____

A

shallow focus

81
Q

if the focal depth is 20 km-50 km, it is considered as _____

A

intermediate focus

82
Q

if the focal depth is 300 km- 700 km, it is considered as _____

A

deep focus

83
Q

the projection of the focus on the surface

A

epicenter

84
Q

3 source parameters

A
  • epicentral distance
  • hypocentral or focal distance
  • focal depth
85
Q

earthquake shaking is generated by two types of _____

A

elastic seismic waves

86
Q

earthquake shaking is generally a combination of these waves at distance from the source or ‘near-field’

A
  • body waves
  • surface waves
87
Q

2 types of body waves

A
  • P-waves
  • S-waves
88
Q

2 types of surface waves

A
  • Love (L or LQ-waves)
  • Rayleigh (R or LR-waves)
89
Q

also termed as ‘preliminary tremors’ because they are felt first and travels through the earth’s interior layers

A

body waves

90
Q

a type of body waves that is longitudinal or primary waves

A

P-waves

91
Q

it cause alternate push (compression) and pull (tension) in the rock thus, the waves propagate, the medium expands and contracts, while keeping the same form

A

P-waves

92
Q

seismic waves with relatively little damage potential

A

P-waves

93
Q

this wave travels through solids, liquids or gases

A

P-waves

94
Q

in P-waves, _____ is the same direction as wave movement

A

material movement

95
Q

arrival: first on a seismogram

A

P-waves

96
Q

a type of body waves that is transverse or secondary waves

A

S-waves

97
Q

it causes vertical and horizontal side-to-side motion and introduces shear stresses in rocks along their paths also defined as ‘shear waves’

A

S-waves

98
Q

its motion can be separated into horizontal (SH) and vertical (SV) components, both of which can cause significant damage

A

S-waves

99
Q

it travels to solids only

A

S-waves

100
Q

arrival: second on a seismogram

A

S-waves

101
Q

P-waves travel _____ (1.5 km –8 km/s) than S-waves

A

faster

102
Q

S-waves travels _____ than P-waves

A

50% to 60% slower

103
Q

propagate across the outer layers of the Earth’s crust, generated by constructive interference of body waves travelling parallel to the ground surface and various underlying boundaries

A

surface waves

104
Q

surface waves induced large displacements, also called _____

A

principal motion

105
Q

because of the long duration, this type of wave cause severe damage to structural systems during earthquake

A

surface waves

106
Q

it is slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side movements

A

surface waves

107
Q

generated by constructive interference of SH body waves and cannot travel across fluid

A

Love waves (L- or LQ waves)

108
Q

its motion is horizontally oscillating and perpendicular to the direction of propagation which is parallel to the Earth’s surface

A

Love waves (L- or LQ waves)

109
Q

have large amplitudes and long periods (60-300 sec)

A

Love waves (L- or LQ waves)

110
Q

typical velocity: depends on earth structure, but less than the velocity of S-waves

A

Love waves (L- or LQ waves)

111
Q

arrival: they usually arrive after the S-wave and before the Rayleigh wave

A

Love waves (L- or LQ-waves)

112
Q

caused by constructive interference of body waves such as P and SV, as they pass by, particles of soil move in the form of a retrograde ellipse whose axis is perpendicular or vertically oscillating to the Earth’s surface

A

Rayleigh waves (R- or LR-waves)

113
Q

causes back and forth horizontal motion; motion is similar to that of being in a boat in the ocean

A

Rayleigh waves (R- or LR-waves)

114
Q

exhibits very large amplitude and regular waveforms

A

Rayleigh waves (R- or LR-waves)

115
Q

arrival: they usually arrive last on a seismogram

A

Rayleigh waves (R- or LR-waves)

116
Q

a visual record of arrival time and magnitude of shaking associated with seismic wave, generated by a seismograph

A

seismogram

117
Q

adjustments that follow a major earthquake often generate smaller earthquakes

A

aftershocks

118
Q

small earthquakes often precede a major earthquake by days or, in some cases, by as much as several years

A

foreshocks

[4] EG (5 decks)

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