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PSYCO 367 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

where does the perceptual process begin?

A

with stimulus in the environment

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2
Q

principle of transformation

A

stimuli and responses created by stimuli are transformed, or changed, between the environmental stimulus and perception

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3
Q

what is the first transformation?

A

when light hits the tree, and is then reflected from the tree to the persons eyes

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4
Q

second transformation?

A

when the reflected light reaches the eye, it is transformed as it is focused by the eyes optical system

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5
Q

principle of representation

A

everything a person perceives is based not on direct contact with stimuli but on representations of stimuli that are formed on the receptors and on activity in the person’s nervous system

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6
Q

what is the first step in the perceptual process?

A

environmental stimulus

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7
Q

second step in the perceptual process?

A

light is reflected and transformed

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8
Q

third step in the perceptual process?

A

receptor processes

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9
Q

fourth step in the perceptual process?

A

neural processing

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10
Q

fifth step in the perceptual process?

A

perception

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11
Q

6th step in the perceptual process?

A

recognition

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12
Q

7th step in the perceptual process?

A

action

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13
Q

sensory receptors

A

cells specialized to respond to environmental energy, with each sensory system’s receptors specialized to respond to a specific type of energy

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14
Q

what do the visual receptors do?

A

transform environmental energy into electrical energy, shape perception by the way they respond to stimuli

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15
Q

what do visual receptors contain?

A

visual pigments which reacts to light

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16
Q

transduction

A

transformation of one form of energy to another form

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17
Q

what does the neural network do?

A

transmits signals from the receptors, and processes these signals as they are transmitted

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18
Q

neural processing

A

changes in signals that occur as they are transmitted

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19
Q

where do the electrical signals from each sense arrive where?

A

primary receiving area for that sense in the cerebral cortex

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20
Q

where is the primary receiving area for vision?

A

occipital lobe

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21
Q

what does the frontal lobe do?

A

receives signals from all the senses. important role in coordination of information

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22
Q

perception

A

conscious awareness of the tree

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23
Q

recognition

A

placing an object in a category that gives it meaning

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24
Q

visual form agnosia

A

inability to recognize objects

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25
Q

bottom up processing

A

processing based on the stimuli reaching the receptors

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26
Q

top down processing

A

processing that is based on knowledge

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27
Q

what happens as stimuli becomes more complex?

A

role of top down processing increases

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28
Q

psychophysical approach

A

measures the relationship between the stimulus and the behavioural response

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29
Q

oblique effect

A

better detailed vision for horizontal and vertical stimuli than for slanted stimuli

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30
Q

physiological approach

A
  1. the relationship between stimuli and physiological response 2. the relationship between physiological responses and behavioural responses
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31
Q

absolute threshold

A

minimum stimulus intensity that can be detected

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32
Q

describe the absolute threshold for the oblique effect

A

the threshold is lower when the gratings are horizontal or vertical rather than slanted

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33
Q

what the gustav fechner do?

A

proposed number of methods for measuring threshold, proved the idea that you cant measure the mind wrong. important for scientific psychology

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34
Q

what are fechner’s 3 methods for measuring threshold?

A

limits, adjustment, constant stimuli

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35
Q

classical psychophysical methods

A

original methods used to measure the relationship between stimuli and perception

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36
Q

method of limits

A

experimenter presents stimuli in either ascending or descending order

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37
Q

crossover point

A

when the observer makes the switch from yes to no

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38
Q

method of adjustment

A

observer adjusts stimulus intensity until the stimulus can be detected

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39
Q

method of constant stimuli

A

stimuli of different intensities are presented and threshold is defined as the intensity that results in detection on 50% of trials

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40
Q

benefits of constant stimuli

A

more accurate because many observations and stimuli are presented randomly , minimizes effect of previous stimuli on new stimuli

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41
Q

disadvantage of constant stimuli

A

time consuming

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42
Q

difference threshold (DL)

A

minimum difference that must exist between two stimuli before we can tell the difference between them

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43
Q

who came up with DL

A

ernst weber

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44
Q

what is the DL for weight

A

2%

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45
Q

Weber fraction

A

DL/standard

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46
Q

weber law

A

fact that the weber fraction remains the same as the standard is changed

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47
Q

magnitude estimation

A

subject assigns a value to a standard stimulus, then is presented stimuli of different intensities, and has to assign a number that is proportional (perceived magnitude)

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48
Q

response compression

A

increase in perceived magnitude is smaller than the increase in stimulus intensity

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49
Q

response expansion

A

increase in perceived magnitude is bigger than the increase in stimulus intensity

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50
Q

stevens power law

A

P=KS^n

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51
Q

stevens power law with exponent less than 1

A

response compression

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52
Q

stevens power law with exponent greater than 1

A

response expansion

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53
Q

phenomenological method

A

person is asked to describe what they are perceiving or to indicate when a particular perception occurs

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54
Q

visual seaerch

A

observers taks is to find one stimulus among many, as fast as they can

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55
Q

response criterion

A

differences between two people

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56
Q

two types of visual receptors

A

rods and cones

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57
Q

cornea

A

transparent cover of the front of the eye

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58
Q

what % of the eyes focusing power is in the cornea?

A

80%

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59
Q

lens

A

remaining 20%. can change its shape to adjust the eyes focus of objects located at different distances

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60
Q

how does the lens change its shape?

A

ciliary muscles

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61
Q

accommodation

A

change in the lens shape that occurs due to the ciliary muscles

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62
Q

near point

A

the distance at which your lens can no longer accommodate to bring close objects into focus

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63
Q

prebyopia

A

distance of the near point increases as a person gets older

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64
Q

at what age does the ability to accommodate begin to decrease rapidly?

A

45

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65
Q

myopia

A

nearsightedness. cant see distant objects

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66
Q

where do the parallel rays focus in myopia?

A

in front of the retina. moving objects closer will push it back into the retina

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67
Q

refractive myopia

A

cornea/lens bends the light too much

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68
Q

axial myopia

A

eyeball is too long

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69
Q

far point

A

distance at which light becomes focused on the retina

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70
Q

hyperopia

A

farsightedness. cant see nearby objects

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71
Q

where is the focus point in hyperopia?

A

behind the retina. usually because the eyeball is too short

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72
Q

visual pigments have two parts

A

opsin and retinal

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73
Q

opsin

A

long protein

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74
Q

retinal

A

smaller, but crucial part of the visual pigment

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75
Q

what happens to the retinal when the visual pigment absorbs light?

A

changes its shape

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76
Q

isomerization

A

when the retinal goes from being bent, to straight, causing a chemical reaction

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77
Q

dark adaptation

A

process of increasing sensitivity in the dark

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78
Q

what does the fovea only contain?

A

cones

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79
Q

what does the peripheral retina contain?

A

both rods and cones, but mostly rods

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80
Q

what does the blind spot contain?

A

absence of any receptors

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81
Q

macular degeneration

A

mostly in older people. destroys cone rich fovea, so there is a blind region in central vision

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82
Q

retinitis pigmentosa

A

degeneration of the retina that is passed from one generation to the next. first attack on rods (peripheral), then attack on cones. nighttime vision ruined first.

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83
Q

dark adaptation curve

A

function relating sensitivity to light to time in the dark

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84
Q

observer sensitivity increases in two phases

A

rapidly for 3-4 minutes after the light is turned off and then levels off. at 7-10 minutes begins again and continues till 20-30 minutes

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85
Q

what is each part of the dark adaptation curve associated with?

A

first part is caused by cones, second part is caused by rods

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86
Q

light adapted sensitivity

A

sensitivity measured in the light

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87
Q

dark adapted sensitivity

A

sensitivity at the end of dark adaptation. about 100k times greater than light adapted sensitivity

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88
Q

rod monochromats

A

person who has no cones

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89
Q

rod cone break

A

where the rods begin to determine the dark adaptation curve

90
Q

why do cones reach their maximum sensitivity faster than rods?

A

visual pigment regeneration occurs more rapidly in cones than in rods

91
Q

visual pigment regenration

A

process of reforming the visual pigment molecule

92
Q

visual pigment bleaching

A

when the change in shape of the retinal causes separation from opsin, making the molecule become lighter in color

93
Q

how long do cones take to regenerate?

A

6 minutes, so by 7 minutes they reach their full sensitivity (have all their cones available for vision)

94
Q

how long do rods take to regenerate?

A

30 minutes

95
Q

detached retina

A

regeneration is blocked. persons retina is detached from pigment epithelium that contains enzymes for regeneration

96
Q

spectral sensitivity

A

eye’s sensitivity to light as a function of the light’s wavelength

97
Q

spectral sensitivity curve

A

relationship between wavelength and sensitivity. use of monochromatic light

98
Q

pattern of threshold and wavelength?

A

threshold is higher at short and long wavelengths. lower in the middle of the spectrum.

99
Q

rods more sensitive to what wavelength

A

short. 500 nm

100
Q

cones more sensitive to what wavelength

A

560 nm

101
Q

purkinje shift

A

enhanced perception of short wavelengths during dark adaptation

102
Q

where are signals transmitted out of the back of the eye in the optic nerve?

A

to a group of neurons called the lateral geniculate nucleus and then to the visual receiving area in the cortex

103
Q

where is the LGN?

A

in the thalamus

104
Q

how long does an action potential last?

A

1 millisecond

105
Q

propagated response

A

once the response is triggered, it travels all the way down the axon without decreasing in size

106
Q

refractory period

A

interval between the time one nerve impulse occurs and the next one can be generated in the axon. causes an upper limit

107
Q

spontaneous activity

A

action potentials that occur in the absence of stimuli from the environment. establishes baseline.

108
Q

rising phase of the action potential

A

charge increase from -70mv to +40mv

109
Q

how does the action potential start?

A

increase permeability to sodium, rushes into the axon

110
Q

what happens to channels as charge reaches 40?

A

sodium channels close, and potassium channels open. K leaves the axon and makes it more negative

111
Q

sodium potassium pump

A

prevents buildup of Na inside the axon and K+ outside the axon from happening

112
Q

what do action potentials trigger when they reach the end of a neuron?

A

trigger release of neurotransmitters

113
Q

what are neurotransmitters stored in?

A

synaptic vesicles

114
Q

where do neurotransmitters go on the receiving neuron?

A

receptor sites

115
Q

excitatory response

A

occurs when the inside of the neuron becomes more positive (depolarization)

116
Q

inhibitory response

A

occurs when the inside of the neuron becomes more negative (hyperpolarization)

117
Q

order of signal generation from receptors?

A

receptors travel to the bipolar cells, and then to the ganglion cells

118
Q

when does convergence occur?

A

when a number of neurons synapse into a single neuron

119
Q

do rods or cones converge more?

A

rods

120
Q

why do rods converge more?

A

results in better sensitivity. takes less light to generate a response in dark adapted eye

121
Q

what does lack of convergence do for the cones?

A

results in better acuity. ability to see detail.

122
Q

lateral inhibition

A

inhibition that is transmitted across the retina

123
Q

what animal was lateral inhibition carried out on?

A

horseshoe crab (limulus)

124
Q

what does the horseshoe crab eye have and why is it useful

A

ommatidia, can record from a single receptor without illuminating neighbouring receptors

125
Q

what cells carry out lateral inhibition in humans?

A

horizontal and amacrine cells

126
Q

mach bands

A

illusory light and dark bands near a light-dark border

127
Q

simultaneous contrast

A

occurs when our perception of the brightness or color of one area is affected by the presence of an adjacent or surrounding area

128
Q

principle of belongingness

A

an area’s appearance is influenced by the part of the surrounding to which the area appears to belong

129
Q

receptive field

A

retinal region over which a cell in the visual system can be influenced (excited or inhibited) by light

130
Q

center-surrounding organization

A

area in the “center” of the receptive field responds differently to light than the area in the “surround”

131
Q

superior colliculus

A

receives some signals from the eye. important role in controlling movements of the eyes

132
Q

what is the visual receiving area also called?

A

striate cortex or area v1

133
Q

why is it called area v1?

A

to indicate that its the first visual area in the cortex

134
Q

proposed function of the LGN?

A

regulate neural information as it flows from the retina to the cortex, and also involved in feedback

135
Q

simple cortical cells

A

cells with side by side receptive fields

136
Q

orientation tuning curve

A

indicates the relationship between orientation and firing

137
Q

complex cells

A

respond best to a particular orientation, but only when the oriented bar of light moves across the entire receptive field in a particular direction

138
Q

end stopped cells

A

fire to moving lines of a specific length or to moving corners or angles

139
Q

feature detectors

A

simple, complex, and end stopped cells that fire in response to specific features of the stimulus (such as orientation or direction of movement)

140
Q

what kind of receptive field do optic nerve fibers (ganglion cells) have?

A

center surround

141
Q

what kind of receptive field does the lateral geniculate have?

A

center surround

142
Q

idea behind selective adaptation?

A

firing causes neurons to eventually become fatigued and adapt. firing rate will decrease and will fire less when the stimulus is immediately presented again

143
Q

contrast threshold

A

minimum intensity difference between two adjacent bars that can just be detected

144
Q

what is selective rearing?

A

idea that if an animal is reared in an environment that contains only certain kinds of stimuli, then neurons that respond to these stimuli will become more prevalent

145
Q

is selecting rearing long term or short term?

A

long term

146
Q

where is the inferotemporal (IT) cortex and what does it do?

A

temporal lobe, complex stimuli

147
Q

what does removing part of the IT cortex in monkeys do and what does it show?

A

affects its ability to recognize objects, neurons in the IT cortex respond to complex stimuli

148
Q

prosopagnosia

A

people with temporal lobe damage are unable to recognize faces

149
Q

where is the fusiform face area (FFA)?

A

fusiform gyrus in temporal lobe

150
Q

sensory coding

A

how the firing of neurons represents various characteristics of the environment

151
Q

specificity coding

A

proposes that a particular object is represented by the firing of a neuron that responds only to that object and to no other object

152
Q

grandmother cell

A

neurons that respond only to a specific stimulus

153
Q

distributed coding

A

representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons

154
Q

sparse coding

A

occurs when a particular object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent

155
Q

spatial organization

A

refers to the way stimuli at specific locations in the environment are represented by activity at specific locations in the nervous system

156
Q

retinotopic map

A

electronic map of the retina on the cortex

157
Q

cortical magnification

A

allotting a large area in the cortex to the small fovea

158
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

person injected with radioactive tracer in their bloodstream, measures changes in blood flow

159
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

detects changes in magnetic response of hemoglobin

160
Q

location columns

A

perpendicular to the surface, all the neurons within a location column have their receptive fields at the same location on the retina

161
Q

orientation columns

A

each column containing cells that respond best to a particular orientation

162
Q

hypercolum

A

a location column with all of its orientation columns

163
Q

how wide is a hypercolumn?

A

1 mm wide

164
Q

where is the ventral pathway and what information does it provide?

A

temporal lobe, what pathway

165
Q

where is the dorsal pathway and what information does it provide?

A

parietal lobe, where/how pathway

166
Q

what is a module?

A

structure that is specialized to process information about a particular type of stimulus?

167
Q

what is the parahippocampal place area (PPA) activated by?

A

activated by pictures depicting indoor and outdoor scenes. spatial layout

168
Q

what is the extrastriate body area (EBA) activated by?

A

activated by pictures of bodies and parts of bodies

169
Q

inverse projection problem

A

task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina

170
Q

viewpoint invariance

A

ability to recognize an object seen from different viewpoints

171
Q

perceptual organization

A

process by which elements in the environment become perceptually grouped to create our perception of objects

172
Q

what are the two types of perceptual organization?

A

grouping and segregation

173
Q

grouping

A

process by which visual events are “put together” into units or subjects

174
Q

segregation

A

process by separating one area or object from another

175
Q

who was structuralism proposed by?

A

wilhelm wundt

176
Q

structuralism

A

sensations add up to make perception, aided by our past experiences

177
Q

arguments against structuralism?

A

apparent movement and illusory contours

178
Q

gestalt psychologists

A

rejected the idea that perceptions were formed by adding up parts, and past experiences. thought perception depends on a number of organizing principles

179
Q

principle of good continuation

A

points that when connected result in a straight or smoothly curving line are seeing as belonging together

180
Q

principle of pagnanz/good figure/simplicity

A

every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible

181
Q

principle of similarity

A

similar things appear to be grouped together

182
Q

principle of proximity

A

things that are near each other appear to be grouped together

183
Q

principle of common fate

A

things that are moving in the same direction appear to be grouped together

184
Q

principle of common region

A

elements that are within the same region of space appear to be grouped together

185
Q

principle of uniform connectedness

A

a connected region of the same visual properties is perceived as a single unit

186
Q

perceptual segregation

A

the perceptual separation of one object from another

187
Q

problem of figure ground segregation

A

question of what causes perceptual segregation

188
Q

global image features

A

can be perceived rapidly and are associated with specific types of scenes

189
Q

physical regularities

A

regular occurring physical properties of the environment

190
Q

semantic regularities

A

characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes

191
Q

who came up withe the theory of unconscious inference and what is it?

A

helmholtz. states that some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions

192
Q

likelihood principles

A

we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have recieved

193
Q

bayesian inference

A

statistical technique that takes probability into account

194
Q

binocular rivalry

A

when the observer perceives either the left eye image or the right eye image but not both at the same time

195
Q

what is a voxel

A

small cube shaped area of the brain about 2-3 mm on each side

196
Q

structural encoding

A

based on the relationship between voxel activation and the structural characteristics of a scene

197
Q

semantic encoding

A

based on the relationship between voxel activation and the meaning or category of a scene

198
Q

what did galen do?

A

tended to gladiator’s wounds and noted that head injuries caused behavioural changes

199
Q

what did descartes do?

A

regarded the brain as a machine, involved with reflexes

200
Q

meuller?

A

doctorine of specific nerve energies, the optic nerve gives you visual information

201
Q

golgi

A

developed method of staining specific neurons

202
Q

adrian

A

recordings from single neurons

203
Q

when did modern era of brain research begin?

A

1950s

204
Q

multiple sclerosis?

A

lack of myelin

205
Q

temporal vs spatial summation

A

summation over time vs multiple sources

206
Q

what is the measurement of blood flow, blood volume and oxygen use called and where is it used?

A

blood oxygen level dependent signal (BOLD), fMRI

207
Q

order of the organization of the retina (from when light hits)

A

optic nerve, ganglion cells, amacrine, bipolar, horizontal, receptors

208
Q

what happens to photo receptors when they absorb light?

A

become hyperpolarized

209
Q

what are the wavelengths for the three types of cone pigments?

A

short 419, medium 513, long 558

210
Q

ratio of rod and cone convergence on ganglion?

A

120:1 rod, 6:1 cone

211
Q

dark current?

A

photo receptor is depolarized to -40, na channels open

212
Q

what kind of potentials do bipolar and ganglion cells have?

A

bipolar have graded potentials, ganglion cells have action

213
Q

what spatial frequency are we most sensitive to?`

A

3cycles/degree

214
Q

monocular

A

responding only to one eye and not the other

215
Q

binocular obligate

A

only respond if both eyes are stimulated

216
Q

binocular facilitation

A

when you get more than the added more than the added sum of stimulation of each eye alone

217
Q

difference between midget and parasol ganglion cells?

A

parasol have bigger dendrites

218
Q

pathway for dorsal stream

A

Parasol (M) ganglion cells, magno LGN, v1, v2, v3, MT, parietal

219
Q

pathway for ventral stream

A

Midget (P) ganglion cells, parvo LGN, v1, v2, v4, IT

220
Q

destruction of parvo layer of lgn

A

deficit of pattern perception

221
Q

destruction of magno layer of lgn

A

deficits of movement perception

PSYCO 367 (3 decks)

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