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PSYCH 118 MIDTERM > MIDTERM 1 > Flashcards

MIDTERM 1 Flashcards

TERMS/CONCEPTS

1
Q

Goal of comparative psychobiology

A

to uncover common and divergent behavioral processes among species (including our own)

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2
Q

Aristotle

A
  • Associative Learning

- Classifying animals. Some are smarter than others.

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3
Q

Descartes

A

The father of physiology

  • how behavior is reduced in a reflexive manner
  • mechanistic view of animal behavior
  • humans share this reflexive behavior w/other animals
  • cartesian dualism: belief that humans have something more like freewill

*Led the way for investigation of animal neurophysiology

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4
Q

Darwin

A
  • Explained a mechanism for evolution to occur by (natural selection) but he did not discover evolution.
  • No qualitative difference between humans and animals
  • We can study comparative cognition because all animals share some common ancestors, thus mechanisms of behavior may be conserved across species

Mental continuity between humans and animals.

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5
Q

Convergent vs. Divergent Evolution

A

Convergent (Homoplasy): similar bodies/eco-niche traits, but different ancestors

The same trait appears but came about through very different lineages (e.g. camels & llamas)
This usually occurs when two different species are filling the same ecological niche

Divergent: same ancestors, different traits

Different traits appear in two species even though they shared a common ancestor (e.g. humans & chimps)

*KNOW the difference between convergent (homoplasy and divergent )

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6
Q

Romanes, Morgan, & Thorndike: Romanes

A

Romanes: cats rationalized door handle situation
Anthropomorphized the cognitive abilities of animals
Took anecdotal reports of single behaviors to be evidence of grand mental abilities

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7
Q

Romanes, Morgan & Thorndike: Morgan

A

Morgan (Morgan’s Canon): assume simpler (lower psychological ability) until proven otherwise. aka be skeptical AF

If we can come up with a simpler explanation over a more sophisticated explanation of the behavior, let’s choose the simpler one

*similar to parsimony

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8
Q

Romanes, Morgan & Thorndike: Thorndke

A

Romane’s methods are unscientific. We don’t know the history of the animal, one data point, etc.
Experimentally showed a cat could open a lever through simple trial and error

*he’s criticizing Romanes’ evaluation (cat will do the same through trial and error)

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9
Q

Tinbergen’s four “Whys” (inherited from Aristotle’s four “causes”)

A
  1. Adaptive significance • What is the behavior good for?
  2. Phylogenetic history • How did the behavior evolve?
  3. Neurological and psychological mechanisms • How does the behavior work?
  4. Developmental processes • What experiences and genetic makeup cause the animal to behave as it does?
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10
Q

how animals are classified: Linnaean system

A 
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata 
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia
Subclass Placentalia 
Order Primates
 Family Hominidae 
Genus Homo 
Species Sapiens
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11
Q

TINBERGEN’S FOUR WHY’S

A
  1. Adaptive Significance (evolutionary, proximate)
    - what is the behavior good for?
  2. Phylogenetic History (evolutionary, generational)
    - how did the behavior evolve?
  3. Mechanisms: Neurological and Psychological
    - how does the behavior work?
  4. Developmental (ontogeny) processes (proximate
    - what experiences and genetic makeup cause the animal to behave as it does
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12
Q

Phenotype

A

observed trait (morphology, physiology, behavior, etc.)

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13
Q

Genotype

A

genetic information contributing to phenotype

Phenotype is the product of the ongoing, dynamic coaction of genes (i.e., genotype) and environmental experience.

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14
Q

Polygenic traits

A

Most traits are the product of the expression of many genes.

many different genes contribute to a particular behavior

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15
Q

Pleiotropy

A

When a gene influences multiple traits.

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16
Q

Direct fitness

A

of direct offspring

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17
Q

Indirect fitness

A

of offspring relatives have + own offspring’s kids (grandkids)

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18
Q

Direct + Indirect fitness

A

= inclusive fitness

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19
Q

Kin selection

A

traits that increase inclusive (both direct and indirect fitness) fitness will be selected for

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20
Q

Ontogeny

A

development of an individual (occurs during the individual’s lifetime)

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21
Q

Neoteny

A

Juvenile features in animals

*think playful adult dogs
Slower rate of development in descendent than in ancestor.
Example: Salamander evolution
In amphibians, gills in larval stage, not in adult stage.
Some salamanders retain gills as adults. The adult is tadpolelike and is aquatic.

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22
Q

Phylogeny

A

the evolutionary history of a group of organisms

origin of taxa (evolution occurs in populations across generations)

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23
Q

Parsimony

A

Least amount of steps, shortest path

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24
Q

taxon/taxa

A

any grouping in the Linnean hierarchy (genus, species, family, etc.)

*think classification of species

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25
Q

Morphological

A

Characterizes a species by body shape and other structural features

*used when common ancestor is unknown

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26
Q

Morphology

A

similar body shape (problematic for classification of species because of convergence)

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27
Q

Plesiomorpy

A

ancestral traits (old trait)

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28
Q

Apomorphy

A

derived trait (i.e., new trait)

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29
Q

Symplesiomorphy

A

shared ancestral trait

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30
Q

Synapomorphy

A

shared derived trait (shared new trait) **most useful

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31
Q

Cladistics: Two forms of similarity in traits

A
  1. Homology: similar because of common ancestor (like family)
  2. Homoplasy: similar because of convergent evolution (think echo niche)
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32
Q

Homology

A

similar because of common ancestor

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33
Q

Homoplasy

A

similar because of convergent evolution

*think of echo nice

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34
Q

Autapomorphy

A

unique derived trait

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35
Q

cladistics

A

the study of the evolutionary relationships of organisms based on the rule of parsimony and that only monophyletic groups deserve taxonomic status.

study of common ancestors amongst organisms using parsimony and monophyletic groupings.

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36
Q

Monophyletic group

A

a group containing all descendants of their most recent common ancestor; in cladistics, the only valid grouping.

*gold standard, what biologist aspire to, we try to find this with parsimony

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37
Q

paraphyletic grouping

A

look the same, groups by some ancestors, but not most recent; invalid because it excludes most recent common ancestors.

based on looks, but not recent family history aka this is a no, no

a group not consisting of all descendants of their most recent common ancestor; in cladistics, this is an invalid grouping because it does not express evolutionary relationships (reptilia excludes birds and animals)

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38
Q

Polyphyletic group

A

grouped by looks, but from different familias–biggest no, no.

a group consisting of two or more distantly related species (an extreme of paraphyly); In cladistics, invalid
ex. the grouping of birds and mammals in haemothermia

a group of taxa derived from different ancestors

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39
Q

Phylogenetic Trees

A

includes time
can estimate timeline in common ancestors (like chimps and humans about 5 million years ago)

but cladogram is agnostic (does not care) about time, it does have order of evolution and separation, but not specific times

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40
Q

Node

A

on a phylogenetic tree, a hypothetical ancestor, the place where two branches intersect

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41
Q

Synapomorphy

A

shared, derived (NEW) characteristic, useful in determining how taxa are related
more than one individual has the ancestral trait

apes & humans (new apomorphy lack a tail –> ancestral trait (Plesiomorpy) have tails

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42
Q

Symplesiomorphy

A

shared primitive (OLD) characteristic, not useful in determining how taxa are related

(Plesiomorpy) Old trait –> tails

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43
Q

Homoplasy

A

two species have a trait they share, but through independent (convergent) evolution

*think echo niche

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44
Q

Haeckel

A

Species similarity greatest at conception and decreases during embryogenesis.

Funnel-like model
**most support for Haeckel because the highest expression of genes is at the beginning and then a linear decrease

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45
Q

von Baer

A

proposed TWO stages where there are major differences in species development.

Phylotypic – greatest similarity

hourglass model with Hox genes in the middle

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46
Q

How are new phenotypes produced?

A

Natural Selection acts on phenotypic variation, not genetic variation.

  • Changes in phenotypes are results of the environments not genetics
  • Changes to individual caused by environment not gene
  • Changes to a population caused by mutation and not the environment
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47
Q

Haeckel and von Baer Takeaway

A

not just about gross-level morphology, the constraints would be strongest at the very beginning and then lessen later

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48
Q

Environmental Modulation of Genes during Development Takeaway

A

good vs bad home environment correlated CHRM2 gene expression

attentive environment = minimal externalizing behavior
neglectful environment = more externalizing behavior

effects of CHRM2 are moderated by parental monitoring (environment)

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49
Q

Environmental Modulation of Genes during Development Takeaway

A

good vs bad home environment correlated CHRM2 gene expression

attentive environment = minimal externalizing behavior
neglectful environment = more externalizing behavior

effects of CHRM2 are moderated by parental monitoring (environment)

**major takeaway: the environment modulates gene expression in the environment

50
Q

Genetic Assimilation

A

If the environment remains fixed for so long, a single phenotype, that was initially brought about due to environmental change, may proliferate and become fixed/ canalized.

51
Q

Genetic Assimilation

A

If the environment remains fixed for so long, a single phenotype, that was initially brought about due to environmental change, may proliferate and become fixed/ canalized.

52
Q

Canalization

A

Phenotype can become canalized (totally fixed and no longer influenced by environment )
*term coined by Waddington

– Highly canalized = developmental program is fixed.
– Weakly canalized = final phenotype depends on environmental input.

53
Q

Behavioral Neophenotypes

A
  • When animals enter new environments, new phenotypes arise (neophenotypes)
  • The genetic underpinnings that lead to these or similar phenotypes are then selected for. This can ultimately lead to speciation.

Applies combination of genetic assimilation and Baldwin effect processes to explain origin of new behavioral traits in new environments.

54
Q

Heterochrony

A

affecting the timing of developmental processes in evolutionary change

Timing of termination, Rate, Timing of Onset (we don’t know which one)

55
Q

Paedomorphosis

A

descendant adult is similar to juvenile ancestor
Progenesis, Neoteny, Postdisplacement

(retention of juvenile, child like)

Less development because of changes to rate, time of termination, or time of onset
Major example we discussed: Neoteny

Slower rate of development conserves juvenile traits. Wolves -> dogs. Possibly other primates-> humans but trait dependent.

56
Q

Peramorphosis (Hypermorphosis)

A

descendant develops some new stages, new traits that weren’t present in the ancestor
Hypermorphosis, Acceleration, Predisplacement

More development because of changes to rate, time of termination, or time of onset
Major example we discussed: Hypermorphosis
Skull bump turns into horn

57
Q

Postdisplacement

A

A form of paedomorphosis, where onset of development is delayed in descendants relative to ancestors

58
Q

Progenesis

A

A form of paedomorphosis where sexual maturity occurs earlier in the descendant than the ancestor

59
Q

Acceleration

A

A form of peramorphosis, where juvenile development is accelerated in descendants relative to ancestors

60
Q

Evolutionary Mismatch

A

Lack of typical environmental inputs, or introduction of novel environments, can derail developmental trajectories
Impoverished bees show deficits in learning & memory abilities
Experience results in synaptic pruning

61
Q

Comparative Physiology of Apes and Man

A

Large brains, small jaws = intelligence, specialized diet
short torso = specialized diet
Large hind limbs, short forelimbs = specialized locomotion

because brain is expensive, our dietary shift in our environment that allowed the shift an energy (fire technology)

62
Q

Shift to carnivory diet

A

• Unlike other top carnivores, we required skill, technology, cleverness, and altruism, to forage effectively.

higher diet quality –> smaller gut –> Larger brain
(increased energy availability)

63
Q

Shifts in Human Brain development

A

-Extended early childhood & adolescence (neotony). —-Continued development of frontal cortex (hypermorphosis)

64
Q

Comparative aspects of brain development

A

a) Neocortex shows steepest increase (slope) in size relative to overall brain size (data from multiple mammalian species)
.b) Monkeys have delayed terminal neurogenesis of cortex relative to rats, suggesting selection for developmental neuroregulation.

65
Q

Heterocromy and the Neocortex

A

cortical layers 5, 4, and 2&3
onset is much delayed in primates than in
starts later, and continues much later

Cortical layers’ development are the only ones without temporal overlap between rats and monkeys

66
Q

Why do only animals have a nervous system?

A

Movement! animals have an active lifestyle

requires sensory input and output

67
Q

Where does neurogenesis take place

A

Neurogenesis throughout lifespan in Hippocampus

68
Q

Brainstem

A

The portion of the rhombencephalon that includes the medulla, pons, and tegmentum

69
Q

Evolutionary Mismatch and Mental Health

A

McGrath argues this as the cause of ASD and schizophrenia
Blaisdell argues anxiety and depression as well

*In developmental bio, “canalize” does not mean the same thing as in evolutionary bio.

70
Q

Evolutionary mismatch

A

Brain development highly dependent on expected environmental input
Breastfeeding vs bottle feeding: jaws & teeth do not develop as the same
Hard foods vs soft foods: people who grow up eating softer food not chewing so much, their jaws, wisdom teeth are different
a. Normal environmental inputs canalize behavioral & cognitive traits during brain development
b. Presence of inappropriate inputs (bottle fed)
c. May impair proper development
It’s not just our highly processed food, bottle feeding, nutritional inputs causing mismatch from our ancestral environment.

71
Q

Psychopathologies

A
  • Autism spectrum, schizophrenia (they think there is an increase prevalence), due to this evolutionary mismatch between expected and unexpected inputs that de-canalize

In Autism (social connection area) suggests that this area did not go through proper pruning

72
Q

Honey Bees Test

A

Absence of expected inputs decanalizes brain development

10-day old honey bees test (2 odors 1 + sugar, 1 no)

  • They were still able to learn the A + Sugar just fine, but had a hard time w/the REVERSAL B + sugar

• Prefrontal cortex is important for reversal discrimination learning (a prefrontal cortex to modulate and engage in flexibility in learning a new piece of information)  this is called a mushroom bodies in bees

73
Q

mushroom bodies of bees that did not have Ol factory experience

A

had higher amount of synaptic connections (not enough pruning)

74
Q

Presence of unexpected inputs can decanalize brain development

A

Training introduced prematurely can interfere with brain development

before post natal day (PND) 90 - those monkeys were never able to learn

75
Q

synaptogenesis & pruning takes place in

A

the PRE FRONTAL CORTEX (PFC)

76
Q

neurogenesis

A

the growth and development of nervous tissue.

77
Q

synaptogenesis

A

the formation of synaptic connections, continues from the second trimester of pregnancy throughout childhood and into adult life. Synaptic pruning, the process of removing unwanted (or unused) synapses is also happening at this time.

78
Q

Precursors to Neurons

A

o Action potentials evolved in single-celled eukaryotes
o Found I many multicellular eukaryotes such as plants and animals.
 Venus flytrap: carnivorous plant (captures, traps, and eats insects)
• If they are given an anesthetic, it prevents the action potentials

79
Q

Action potentials in multicellular life

A

o Provide rapid, long-range signaling within the organism (toe too close to the campfire, the info needs to relay quickly, so that moving away from fire)
 Functions: coordinates mechanical events: heartbeat, glandular processes, movement, etc.
 Provides foundation of computational processes: (intelligence of the brain) central pattern generators, perception, learning, cognition, tips and taxes, likes and shares, etc.

80
Q

Evolution of the Nervous System

A
  1. Fossil record
    a. Nervous systems rarely fossilize
    b. Infer properties of nervous system form behavioral traces that have fossilized
  2. Comparative analysis of extant taxa *much more common and more practical approach
    a. Compare behaviors and neural circuitry in a variety of living animals that differ in complexity
81
Q

Study of modern invertebrate Phyla

A
  1. Porifera –sponges
  2. Cnidaria – jellyfish, anemones, coral
  3. Echinodermata-Star fish, sea urchins
  4. Annelida –worms
  5. Mollusca-clams oysters, squid octopus
  6. Arthropoda-insects, spiders, shrimp, crab, lobster
82
Q

Porifera

A

Sponge can be dissociated by being pushed through a fine filter.
Only individual cells respond, but signals can propagate throughout colony.
No true neurons
Passive Feeder

83
Q

Cnidaria

A

Carnivorous: inject venom into prey with nematocysts

Anemone venom is injected into us but not potent enough

84
Q

Cnidarian nervous system

A

True neurons - sensory, motor, interneurons.
forms a neural network, but no CNS.
Axons not myelinated, conduction speed determined by
axon size.
Presynaptic echo
Cnidarian neurons can be bidirectional.
Action potential in presynaptic cell initiates AP in postsynaptic cell

85
Q

Fossil Evidence for human behavior

A

Australopithecus walked with an upright, striding gait as do modern humans.

cut marks from human stone tools

86
Q

Dinosaur Footprints

A

Dinosaurs carried their bodies above the ground and moved like mammals and birds, not like lizards

87
Q

Fuxianhuia protensa fossil brain

A

Fossil arthropod from Cambrian (520mya)
Tripartite brain: like brains of Malacostraca (crabs), Chilopodacc(centipedes), and Insecta, but not those of Branchiopoda (shrimp)

88
Q

Hox (Homeotic) Genes

A

Regulatory genes. Govern development of body components along the anterior-posterior axis during phylotypic stage

Mutations can have severely negative effects so stable and conserved across divergent phyla

89
Q

Reasons to Study Aplysia (a sea slug)

A

Has circuitry and network properties and neuronal plasticity mechanisms.
Relatively simple nervous system (~20k neurons).
Large neurons are easily identifiable.
Behavior can be modified with experience (i.e., learning)

90
Q

Aplysia Gill-withdrawal reflex circuit

A

o They have two synapses, mono and poly a lot of work in different phyla (nonvertebrate and no chordates to look at the cellular basis for learning)

91
Q

Crayfish escape reflex

A

“Giant fiber” responses (escape reflex): Stereotyped; Respond to sudden, strong stimuli; very short latency
vs
nonG responses (regular swimming): Flexible;
Respond to gradual or weak stimuli; Long latency

*basically two different system reactions that respond to different stimuli

used for many years to study species-typical elicited behavior

92
Q

o Modal Action Pattern (MAP)

A

a fixed action pattern, orderly sequence of reflexive behaviors

  • basic unit of measure of an animal in the wild.

typically Model Action Patterns are seen for species typical behavior.eg., feeding, mating, social behaviors, etc. Evolutionarily important behaviors, “instinctive” elicited by complex array of sequence of stimuli

93
Q

Two types of MAP control systems

A
  • Reflex chain: (like
    requires feedback from sensory neurons
  • Central Pattern Generator (CPG): (like walking)
    does not can cut afferents to determine which model underlies a particular MAP
94
Q

Leech swimming MAP

A
  • Swimming behavior for the leech is controlled by Central Pattern Generator (CPG) ** a little neural circuit

o They may just be a series of reflex chain

95
Q

Simple Learning

A
  • Habituation effect: decreased response w/repeated stimulations** like lemon drop
  • Sensitization effect: increased response w/repeated stimulation. Increased response after exposure to noxious stimulus ** like hot wings
96
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A
  • If you keep touching Sea anemone, eventually they stop closing, but after a while of not touching them they will spontaneously recover (will start closing on touch)
97
Q

dishabituation

A

if you shake tank, it will start to close again

o Thus, habituation is the result of a learning process.
o Cnidaria therefore capable of simple learning (habituation).

98
Q

Location of habituation processes

A

Sensory Adaptation (aka sensory fatigue)  habituation (interneuron)  motor fatigue (muscle) effector loses response efficiency

99
Q

Difference between spontaneous recovery vs dishabituation

A

spontaneous recovery = passage of time, recovers spontaneous recovery all by itself

dishabituation = no change in time, recovery is due to extraneous stimulus (tank shaking)

100
Q

Learning vs Sensory Adaptation vs Motor Fatigue

A
  • motor fatigue (lift weights for too long)

- sensory fatigue (

101
Q

Where does habituation occur?

A

habituation (true learning process occurs in the interneurons

kind of like learning to ignore

Sensory Adaptation (aka sensory fatigue) –> habituation (interneuron) –> motor fatigue (muscle) –> effector loses response efficiency

102
Q

Habituation of reflexes

A
  1. Short-term habituation
  2. Spontaneous recovery
  3. Long-term habituation
  4. Rate of habit. faster for short ISI
  5. Rate of habit. faster for weaker stimuli*
  6. Below-zero habituation* DS = dishabituating stimulus
    * (Properties 5-8 rule out sensory and motor fatigue as accounts for reduced response strength with repeated stimulus.)
  7. Habituation is specific – generalization gradient*
  8. Dishabituation*
103
Q

C. elegans

A

easy to study:
• ~1 mm long
• 302 neurons in CNS
• single neurons can be destroyed

tap the petri dish, the worm normally swims forward, their reflex will backup (danger ahead) and they’ll swim in a different direction

104
Q

Four things that evidence for habituation is a learning process and not due to a sensory issue or an output issue

A
  1. Below Zero Habituation
  2. Generalization to other stimuli
  3. Dishabituation
  4. Quicker habituation to less salient stimuli
105
Q

Interneurons

A

where learning takes place (habituation)

the touching of petri dish (dishabituation) in worm, will STILL reverse swim

106
Q

homosynaptic depression

A

decrease in excitability by a synapse NT (action potentials)

*think half Aplysia alive but part of it

possible explanation for short-term habituation

107
Q

Neural plasticity in the sensory neuron

A

touching the head of the Aplysia can start of 2 systems that lead to 2 separate results:

  1. Pathway closes K-channels –> EXTENDS DURATION OF DEPLORIZATION IN NONDEPRESSED SYNAPSE–>endpoint is called Spike Broadening which is caused short-term sensitization.
  2. Opens CA++ channels –> INCREASE EXCITABILITY in DEPRESSED SYNAPSE –> mobilization of vesicles aka Dishabituation

**super complex diagram with tiny neuroscience processes

108
Q

Cladistic analysis of learning mechanisms in mollusks

A

looking for 1. dishabituation and 2. short-term sensitization

The dolabrifera somehow lost both

  • Increased excitability (autapomorphy ‘ old shared trait)
  • and Spike broadening (homoplasy)

first 5 sea slugs had increased excitability (symplesiomorphy) [dishabituation]

3-5 sea slugs had (evolved here) Spike broadening (synapomorphy ‘ new trait)) [sensitization]

5th sea slug (dolabrifera) lost both traits
- independently evolved to this state (homoplasy)

109
Q

Phylum Chordata defined by 4 traits:

A

1) dorsal hollow nerve cord
2) notochord
3) gill slits
4) postnatal tail

110
Q

Why do we have brains?

A
  1. Integration of sensory input

2. Organization of response output

111
Q

Vertebrate brain archetype

A 
telencephalon
diencephalon
Mesencepahlon, 
Rhombencephalon
spinal cord
112
Q

spinal connections

A

help them coordinate movement

113
Q

Pavlonian Learning in Spinal Rats

A

Rats have connection between spinal cord and brain severed

CS+ & CS- (CS is a very light shock to a specific leg). US stronger shock

From this analgesia should become a CR to the CS+
Latency to move tail from hot plate is longer for CS+ then CS-.

Master rats show higher rates of leg flexion than do control rat

114
Q

Cerebellum locus of eye blink condition

A

o Brain stem (CEREBELLUM) is involved in learning. There’s a lot more cognitive processing going on in the cerebellum. A lesion the section and learning would not occur
o Conditioned responses are happening 78% or 3/4ths of the time
 Different than fear conditioning w/amygdala

115
Q

Telencephalon and Behavior

A

Interesting findings: nonmammalian creatures to see what role telencephalon plays; if ablation of (damage to) fish or bird telencephalon produces little noticeable change in behavior!
Telencephalon of non-mammals plays a modulatory role in behavior in addition to being storage site for new learning

116
Q

vertebrate relative brain size

A

resources thrown into telenchepahlon and let mescephalon shrink

birds and reptiles invest in both

117
Q

Comparative neuroanatomy

A

elative volume of midbrain decreased and forebrain increased relative to rest of brain during vertebrate evolution.

118
Q

Why are bigger brains better?

A

bigger and more flexible

119
Q

What happens to functional interconnectivity with change in brain size?

A
  • Two models for how neural networks change with size
    o We know that bigger brains have more neurons
     A. increased # of connections to maintain proportional connectivity
     Absolute number of connections maintained? (more sparsely connected)
    • More evidence for more sparsely connected brain
    o More subdivisions
120
Q

Instrumental Learning (Rats)

A

Master group avoids shock by flexing leg, gets shock when relaxed. The yoked group gets shocked whenever the other group gets shocks regardless of what they’re doing. Master group shows more leg flexes than yoked group

121
Q

two ways to study the nervous system

A

fossil records & comparative analysis of taxa

PSYCH 118 MIDTERM (1 decks)

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