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Honors Bio > Midterms Studying > Flashcards

Midterms Studying Flashcards

1
Q

Biology

A

scientific study of life

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2
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

has 1 parent, meaning clones to the origin; identical offspring to the parent

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3
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Has 2 parents; creates genetic variation because the product and the parents are different

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4
Q

What is the ultimate source of energy?

A

The Sun

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5
Q

Energy of an object due to its position/structure is called

A

potential energy

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6
Q

Energy due to motion is called

A

kinetic energy

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7
Q

Organisms that convert kinetic energy to potential energy and make organic molecules from molecules are called

A

producers

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8
Q

Organisms that make food by themselves are called

A

autotrophs

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9
Q

Organisms that use light energy are called

A

photoautotrophs

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10
Q

Organisms that use chemical energy are called

A

chemoautotrophs

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11
Q

Organisms that cannot make their own food, but rely on producers to survive are called

A

consumers

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12
Q

Organisms that depend on foods from other organisms are called

A

heterotrophs

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13
Q

Organisms that eat autotrophs are called

A

herbivores

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14
Q

Organisms that eat heterotrophs are called

A

carnivores

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15
Q

Organisms that eat dead autotrophs and heterotrophs are called

A

decomposers

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16
Q

Law of conservation of matter

A

Matter cannot be created or destroyed; it is cycled through the ecosystem

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17
Q

Law of conservation of energy

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can be transferred or transformed, but during this process, some energy may be ‘lost’ in the form of heat; unlike matter, energy flows through the ecosystem

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18
Q

The capacity to do work is called

A

energy

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19
Q

response to the environment

A

organisms can resopnd to external stimuli

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20
Q

positive feedback mechanisms

A

response to stiumulus that will enhance the response output

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21
Q

Negative feedback mechanisms

A

Response to stimulus that will reduce the response output

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22
Q

evolutionary adaptation

A

a process, in which it contributes to the fitness and survival of the organisms

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23
Q

Reductionist approach

A

Attempting to understand complex phenomena by understanding their component parts

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24
Q

Combination of atoms in a fixed ratio

A

Molecules

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25
Q

Membrane bound structure made up of molecules

A

Organelles

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26
Q

The smallest unit of life that can survive independently; made up of multiple organelles; basic unit of structure and function of an organism

A

Cell

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27
Q

Group of cells that work together to perform a specific function

A

Tissues

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28
Q

Groups of tissues that work together to fullfill a function

A

Organs

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29
Q

organ system

A

groups of organs that work together for a common function

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30
Q

organisms

A

individual living things; one member of a species

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31
Q

species

A

a group of individuals that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

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32
Q

populations

A

a group of individuals of the same species in the same areas at the same time

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33
Q

community

A

several populations living in the same area at the same time

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34
Q

exosystem

A

all living and non-living componenets in a particular area

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35
Q

biosphere

A

all of the environments that suppor life

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36
Q

hierarchy of life

A

leves of increase in complexity in structure

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37
Q

emergent properties

A

properties that arise by virtue of increased complexity

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38
Q

cell theory

A

all organisms are made of one or more cells; cells are the smallest unit of life; all cells come from pre-existing cells

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39
Q

characteristics of all cells

A

have DNA at some point during its life span; surrounded by a cell membrane; contain ribosomes; have cytoskeletons

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40
Q

prokaryotes

A

lack internal membrane compartments; DNA is located in a dense Nucleoid region; single circular chromosome

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41
Q

eukaryotes

A

extensive internal membrane compartments; DNA found in the nucleus in the form of linear chromosomes

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42
Q

Cladogram (LUCA)

A

last universal common ancester

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43
Q

Primitive property level

A

properties that are common among ancestors

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44
Q

Derived property level

A

properties that are unique to organisms, but are not appeared in common ancestors

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45
Q

inductive reasoning

A

conclusion based on large number of observation

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46
Q

deductuve reasoning

A

conclusion based on logic and can be used to test hypothesis

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47
Q

pH scale

A

a scale that measures how acidic or basic a substance is

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48
Q

pH

A

way of describing hydrogen ion concentration in aqeuous solutions

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49
Q

buffers

A

weak acids or bases used to maintainhomeostasis; a substance that minimizes changes in the solution

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50
Q

Acids ____ H+ ions. Bases ____ H+ ions.

A

donate, accept

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51
Q

An element

A

a substance that cannot be broken down to smaller substances by chemical reactions

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52
Q

96.3% of the elements in the human body are

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (CHON)

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53
Q

a compound

A

a substance made up of two or more different elements in a fixed ratio

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54
Q

trace elements

A

essential but only needed in small quantities

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55
Q

atom

A

smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element

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56
Q

protons

A

positively charged particles

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57
Q

electrons

A

negatively charged particles

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58
Q

neutrons

A

neutral charged particles

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59
Q

atomic number

A

the number of protons; if the atom has no ions, then it is the number of electrons and protons are the same

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60
Q

mass number

A

the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus (center of the atom)

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61
Q

isotope

A

atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

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62
Q

radioative isotopes

A

nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy

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63
Q

half life of carbon

A

5760 years

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64
Q

electron shells

A

an energy level containing specific amount of electrons each with a characteristic distance from the nucleus

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65
Q

valence shell

A

the outermost electron sheel from the nucleus; it also determines the chemical properties of the atom

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66
Q

incomplete outer shells may…

A

share, donate, or receive electrons

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67
Q

2 types of strong bonds

A

ionic bonds and covalent bonds; occurs between atoms

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68
Q

2 types of weak bonds

A

hydrogen bonds and van der waals interactions; occurs between molecules

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69
Q

ionic bonds

A

atoms donate or receive electrons; A->B

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70
Q

covalent bonds

A

atoms share a pair of electrons; AB

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71
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

weak bonds occuring between molecules that have polar covalent bonds involvin ghydrogen

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72
Q

van der waals interactions

A

weak bonds caused by unequal distribution of electrons

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73
Q

electronegativity

A

act of attracting electrons towards itself

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74
Q

polar covalent bonds

A

bonds that share electrons UNEQUALLY

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75
Q

nonpolar covalent bonds

A

bonds that share electrons EQUALLY

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76
Q

ions

A

atoms that have either gained or lost electron(s)

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77
Q

cations

A

positively charged ions; lose electrons

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78
Q

anions

A

negatively charged ions; gains electrons

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79
Q

cohesion

A

tendency of the molecules of the samke kind to stick together

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80
Q

adhesion

A

tendency of different molecules to stick together

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81
Q

surface tension

A

A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

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82
Q

capilary action

A

combination of cohesion and adhesion; Ex: water transport in a tree

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83
Q

thermal energy

A

random movement of atoms and molecules

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84
Q

temperature

A

average speed of molecules in a body of matter

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85
Q

specific heat

A

amount of energy required to raise the temperature by 1 C

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86
Q

heat in hydrogen bonds

A

when heat is absorbed, it breaks hydrogen bonds; when heat is released, hydrogen bonds form

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87
Q

water is _____ as a _____ than as a _____

A

less dense…solid…liquid

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88
Q

acid

A

a substance that donates hydrogen ions to solutions

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89
Q

base

A

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

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90
Q

high specific heat capacity of water

A

it takes a lot of heat to change the temperature of water

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91
Q

solvent

A

a liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances

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92
Q

solute

A

substance being dissolved

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93
Q

carbon-based molecules

A

organic compounds that are composed of carbon and hydrogen, which is known as hydrocarbons

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94
Q

bonds of carbon

A

carbon can bond to 4 other atoms and it can branch in up to 4 directions

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95
Q

isomers

A

compounds with the same molecular formula but different structure

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96
Q

length of carbon skeletons

A

when the carbon chain is in a straight line, the number of carbons differ and the naming of the molecule will differ; naming will always a suffix based on the number of double bonds

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97
Q

prefixes for the number of carbons

A

meth-1

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98
Q

chain isomers

A

the carbon chain may have additional carbons that are branched from other carbons

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99
Q

positional isomers

A

differ in the position of a double bond within the carbon chain

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100
Q

naming of different number of bonds

A

…ane-0 double bonds…ene-at least 1 double bond

…yne-triple bonds

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101
Q

rings

A

carbon skeletons may be arranged in rings, in which every corner represents 1 carbon and the sides represent the bonds between the carbons

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102
Q

geometric isomer

A

different arrangement of atoms revolving around a double bond; same molecular formula but different rotations

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103
Q

enantiomers

A

occur because of an asymmetric carbon, which is when a carbon atom is bonded to 4 different atoms and it may be mirrored in position to give off different effects

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104
Q

nonpolar molecules

A

hydrophobic and water repelling

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105
Q

polar molecules

A

hydrophilic and water loving

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106
Q

functional groups

A

affect a molecule’s function by participating in chemical reactions; it makes a compound hydrophilic

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107
Q

hydroxyl group

A

hydrogen bonded to oxygen; -OH

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108
Q

carbonyl group

A

carbon double bonded to an oxygen; >C=O

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109
Q

carboxyl group

A

a carbon double-bonded to both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group; -COOH

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110
Q

amino group

A

nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens and to the carbon skeleton; -NH2

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111
Q

phosphate group

A

phosphorus bonded to four oxygens; -OPO3

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112
Q

methyl

A

carbon bonded to three hydrogens; only functional group that is hydrophobic; -CH3

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113
Q

disulfide bridges

A

covalent bonds that may further reinforce the shape of a protein; creates a unique characteristic for the molecule; -SH

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114
Q

aldehyde

A

carbonyl group is located at the end of the chain

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115
Q

ketone

A

carbonyl group is located in the middle of the chain

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116
Q

polymers

A

large compound formed from combinations of many monomers

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117
Q

monomers

A

building blocks of polymers

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118
Q

dehydration synthesis (condensation)

A

remove water in monomers to create bonds (polymers)

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119
Q

hydrolysis

A

adding water to polymers to break it down into monomers

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120
Q

enzymes

A

proteins that act as biological catalysts, which speeds up chemical reactions

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121
Q

carbohydrates

A

small sugar monomers and large polysaccharides

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122
Q

monosaccharides

A

simple sugar; has 6 carbons (hexose); glucose, fructase, galactose

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123
Q

polysaccharides

A

large macromolecules formed from monosaccharides; may function as storage molecules or structural compounds; hydrophilic

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124
Q

aldose

A

glucose with aldehyde; 6 carbon chain with carbonyl group in the end

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125
Q

ketose

A

fructose with ketone; 6 carbon chain with carbonyl group in the middle

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126
Q

ring formed monosaccharides

A

monosaccharides may be in the form of a hexagon, where as one angle represents oxygen and the other angles represent a carbon with an additional carbon attached to the last carbon when it is count clockwise from the oxygen

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127
Q

formula of Cn(H2O)n

A

hydrogen and oxygen are always in the ratio of 2:1 in this molecules and the ratio of C:H:O is 1:2:1

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128
Q

disaccharide

A

2 monosaccharides bonded together through dehydration reaction

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129
Q

maltose

A

disaccharide; formed by 2 glucoses; C12 H22 O11

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130
Q

sucrose

A

disaccharide; formed by glucose and fructose; C12 H22 O11

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131
Q

lactose

A

disaccharide; formed by glucose and galactose; C12 H22 O11

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132
Q

glycosidic bonds

A

bonds that joins the two monosaccharides together

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133
Q

starch

A

found in plants (the leaves, stems, roots)

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134
Q

glycogen

A

found in animals (liver and muscles)

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135
Q

chitin

A

found in the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeleton of animals

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136
Q

cellulose

A

found in the cell walls of plants

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137
Q

peptidoglycan

A

found in the cell walls of bacteria

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138
Q

lipids

A

hydrophobic compounds; important in long-term energy storage; consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by nonpolar covalent bonds

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139
Q

4 types of lipids

A

fats & oils, phosphlipids, steroids, and waxes

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140
Q

fat

A

consists of one glycerol linked to three fatty acids through dehydration synthesis

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141
Q

ester bond

A

bond that connects the glycerol and fatty acid in fat molecules

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142
Q

fatty acid

A

single covalent bond between carbons; hydrophobic

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143
Q

unsaturated fatty acids

A

have one or more double bonds in the carbon chain; oil, and liquid at room temperature

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144
Q

saturate fatty acids

A

no double bonds in the carbon chain

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145
Q

glycerol

A

a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon; hydrophilic

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146
Q

steroids

A

lipids in which the carbon skeleton contains four fused rings

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147
Q

cholesterol

A

common component in animal cell membranes and starting material for making steroids, including sex hormones; stabilizes membranes and it works as a “fluidity buffer”

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148
Q

anabolic steroids

A

synthetic substances that are similar to the male hormone testosterone; cause build up of muscle and bone mass; often prescribed to treat general anemia

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149
Q

proteins

A

composed of amino acids that differ in arrangments

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150
Q

amino acid

A

compound with an amino group on left end and a carboxyl group on the right end, the center is a carbon with a hydrogen attached to it. R group is attached to the carbon from the bottom and it varies for different amino acids

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151
Q

polar hydrophilic R group

A

R groups that ends with -OH or -COOH; Serine and Aspartic acid

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152
Q

nonpolar hydrophobic R group

A

R groups that ends with CH3; Leucine

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153
Q

peptide bond

A

the chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid; water is removed from the right end from one amino acid and the left end from another amino acid

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154
Q

polypeptide

A

long chain of amino acids that makes proteins

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155
Q

structural proteins

A

provide physical stability and movement

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156
Q

contractile proteins

A

generate force during contraction of muscles

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157
Q

defensive proteins

A

antibodies of the immune system

158
Q

signal proteins

A

carry extracellular signals from cell to cell

159
Q

receptor proteins

A

transmit signals into cells

160
Q

transport proteins

A

carry oxygen

161
Q

storage proteins

A

storage of amino acids

162
Q

process of denaturation

A

polypeptide unravels, loses its shape, and loses its function; occurs due to salt concentration, pH, or high heat

163
Q

primary structure of protein

A

sequence of amino acids; the sequence is determined y the genetic information; the sequence and the function are related

164
Q

secondary structure

A

coiling or folding of the polypdptides; has 2 forms of the structure

165
Q

alpha helix

A

a spiral shaped protein resulting for coiling

166
Q

pleated sheet

A

the folded arrangement of a polypeptide in a protein’s secondary structure.

167
Q

tertiary structure

A

the third level of protein structure; the overall, three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain

168
Q

quarternary structure

A

the fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits

169
Q

nucleic acid

A

macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus; DNA and RNA

170
Q

DNA

A

deoxyribonucleic acid; determine genes

171
Q

RNA

A

ribonucleic acid

172
Q

transciption

A

occurs in the nucleus and turns DNA into mRNA

173
Q

translation

A

decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain/proteins

174
Q

nucleotides

A

basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a 5C sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base

175
Q

bond between nucleotides

A

hydrogen bonds between antiparallel nitrogenous bases

176
Q

phospho-diester bond

A

bond between phosphate group and sugar group between in nucleotides

177
Q

DNA nitrogenous bases

A

adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)

178
Q

RNA

A

A, C, G, and uracil (U)

179
Q

base pairing rule

A

DNA: A-T C-G RNA: A-U C-G

180
Q

nitrogenous bases

A

purines and pyrimidines

181
Q

purines

A

adenine and guanine

182
Q

pyrimidines

A

thymine and cytosine

183
Q

transcribing DNA to RNA

A

flip the end numbers; write the opposite pair and instead of A->T change to A->U

184
Q

Hooke (1665)

A

examined a piece of cork and discovered cells

185
Q

Leeuwenhoek

A

worked with refined lenses to study living cells from bloos, sperm, and pond water (animalcules)

186
Q

Microscope limitations

A

limations of the human eye and the mircoscope prevents the ability to distinguish small structural details

187
Q

Staining

A

using dyes like iodine (for starch) or bromthymol blue for animal transparent cells

188
Q

Regulating light

A

using illumations upon specimen by introducing shadows if the cells are transparent

189
Q
  • shapes the cell
  • has phospholipid bilayer
  • membrane proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer
A

Function of plasma membrane

190
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

on the surface of the membrane

191
Q

Integral proteins

A

in the membrane

192
Q

Intergral

A

embedded in the membrane and do NOT pass through the membrane

193
Q

transmembrane

A

embedded in the membrane and passes through the membrane

194
Q

plasmids

A

extra chromosomal DNA

195
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

comples cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane

196
Q

Cell wall

A

-protects the cell -help maintain the shape of the cell

197
Q

Pili

A

short projections that help attach prokaryotes of each other or surfaces

198
Q

Cellular metabolism

A

chemical activites of cells

199
Q

Anabolism

A

building up; non-spontaneous

200
Q

catabolism

A

breaking down; spontaneous

201
Q

Plant cell structure not found in animal cells

A
  • rigid cell wall containing cellulose -plasmodesmata, cytoplasmic channels through cell walls that connect adjacent cells
  • chloroplast (where photosynthesis occurs)
  • central vacuole (compartment that stores water and chemicals)
202
Q

Nucleus

A

-contains most of the cell’s DNA -control the cell’s activies by making mRNA

203
Q

mRNA

A

messenger RNA

204
Q

Chromatin

A

a complex of proteins and DNA when the cell is resting and not dividing

205
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

-double membrane -contain ribosomes

206
Q

What is the nuclear envelope stabilized by?

A

The nuclear lamina

207
Q

Nuclear lamina

A

the shape of the nucleus is maintained by a cytoskeleton network

208
Q

Nucleolus

A
  • a prominent structure in the nucleus -site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
  • it doesn’t have a membrane
209
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • involved in protein synthesis -non membranous

- use mRNA for cellular components

210
Q

Free ribosomes

A

-suspended in the cytosol -protein that functions in the cytoplasm

211
Q

Bound ribosomes

A

-attached on the outside of the endopalsmic reticulum -proteins packed in organelles or exported from the cell

212
Q

Endomembrane system

A

membranes within a eukaryotic cell

213
Q

Vesicles

A

sacs made of membrane that transfer membrane segments between them

214
Q

Interactions of the organelles

A

synthesis, distribution, storage, and export of molecules

215
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

an extensive network of flattened sacs and tubules

216
Q

Smooth Endoplamic Reticulum is involved in …

A
  • production of enzymes needed for synthesis of lipids

- production of enzymes to assist process substances -stores calcium ions

217
Q

Transport vesicles

A

besicles that transport products from the ER to the golgi apparatus

218
Q

Cis-side

A

one side of the golgi stack serves as a receiving dock for transport vesicles

219
Q

Apoptosis

A

programed cell death

220
Q

Mitochondria

A

organelles that carry out cellular respiration nearly in all eukaryotic cells

221
Q

Cellular respirtation

A

converts the chemical energy in food to chemical energy in ATP

222
Q

Internal compartments of mitochondria

A

intermenbrane space and mitochondrial matrix

223
Q

Intermembrane space

A

narrow region between the inner and outer membranes

224
Q

Photosynthesis

A

conversion of light energy from the sun to the chemical energy of sugar molecules

225
Q

Chloroplast

A

photosynthesizing organeles of plants and algae

226
Q

Stroma

A

think fluid in the inner membrane of chloroplast

227
Q

Thylakoids

A

contains chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, many enzymes, and a network of interconnected sacs

228
Q

Granum

A

stacked thylakoids

229
Q

Both mitochondrai and chloroplasts contain ______________

A

DNA and ribosomes

230
Q

Cyotoskeleton

A

network of protein gibers that organizes the structure and activites of the cell

231
Q

Cilia

A

short, numerous appendages that propel protists

232
Q

Flagella

A

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell movement

233
Q

Dynein feet

A

bending motor proteins in flagella and cilia

234
Q

Anchorage dependence

A

the requirement of cells to be attached onto a surface in orer to divide (except WBC)

235
Q

Tight junctions

A

prevent leakage of fluid across a layer of epithelial cells

236
Q

Anchoring junctions

A

fasten cells together into sheet; desmosomes

237
Q

Gap junctions

A

channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein-lined pores between cells; communicating junctions

238
Q

Functions of eukaryotic cell structure

A
  • genetic control -manufacture/distribution/material breakdown
  • energy processing
  • strucutral support/ movement/ intercellular communication
239
Q

Energy processing organelles

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts

240
Q

Structural support organelles

A

cytoskeleton, plasmamembrane, and cell wall

241
Q

Movement organelles

A

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

242
Q

Communication organelles

A

extracellular matrix, and cell junctions

243
Q

Centriole

A

one of two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope; aids in cell division

244
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

channels through plant cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells

245
Q

Contractile vacuole

A

The cell structure that collects extra water from the cytoplasm and then expels it from the cell

246
Q

aquaporins

A

water channel proteins

247
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

model that describes the arrangement and movement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane

248
Q

cell membrane

A

made of phospholipid bilayer, embedded and attached proteins, and it regualtes what passes through the membrane

249
Q

phosphate head

A

hydrophilic

250
Q

fatty acid tails

A

hydrophobic

251
Q

phospholipid tails that pack closer together are

A

saturated fatty acids and are more solid

252
Q

phospholipid tails that pack from each other

A

unsaturated fatty acids and are more liquid

253
Q

selectively premeable membrane

A

allows some particles into cell while keeping others out; small, non-polar molecules pass through easily

254
Q

channel protein

A

no energy is required for transport and the molecules travel down the concentration gradient (from higher concentration to lower)

255
Q

active transport protein (pumps)

A

energy is required to transport molecules and the molecules move up the concentration gradient (from lower concentration to higher)

256
Q

transport protein

A

allow specific ions or molecule to enter or exit the cell

257
Q

enzymes in cell membrane

A

grouped in the membrane to carry out sequential reactions

258
Q

attachment protein

A

attach to the extracellular matrix and cytoskeleton

259
Q

integral proteins

A

proteins that are in the membrane bilayer but does not pass through it

260
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

proteins that spans from one end of the membrane to the other end

261
Q

peripheral protein

A

proteins that are attached to the surface of the membrane.

262
Q

receptor protein

A

signals molecules bind to receptor proteins; relay message by activating other molecules inside the cell

263
Q

junction proteins

A

form intercellular junctions that attach adjacent cells

264
Q

glycoproteins

A

play a role in immunity; serve as ID tag to be recognized by membrane proteins of other cells

265
Q

cholesterol in fatty acids tails

A

in form of diagonal connecting from one inner end to outer end of fatty acid tails

266
Q

active transport

A

require energy; substances move from lower concentration to higher concentration

267
Q

passive transport

A

do not require energy; substances move from higher concentration to lower concentration

268
Q

diffusion

A

the tendency of particles to spread out evenly in an available space; particles move from an area of more concentrated particles to an area where they are less concentrated; passive/ do not require energy; go down concentration gradient

269
Q

dynamic equilibrium

A

result of diffusion where there is continuous movement of particles but no overall change in concentration

270
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; move down its concentration gradient

271
Q

tonicity

A

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends on its concentration of solutes relative to the concentration of solutes inside the cell

272
Q

istonic solution

A

concentration of solute is the same on both sides of a membrane; equal concentration

273
Q

hypotonic solution

A

concentration of solute is lower outside the cell, water molecules move into the cell, which may cause the cell to expand and burst

274
Q

hypertonic solution

A

concentration of solute is higher outside the cell, water molecules move out of the cell, causing the cell to shrivel, shrink

275
Q

crenation

A

this happens when a cell shrinks and shrivels; can result in cell death if severe.

276
Q

osmoregulation

A

thhe control of water balance

277
Q

osmoconformers

A

internal osmotic concentration is the same as that of their surrounding medium

278
Q

osmoregulators

A

regulate their osmolarity to keep it at a constant homeostatic value, found in fresh water animals and terrestrial animals

279
Q

cell wall of plant cells

A

exert pressure that prevents the cell from taking in too much water and burst when placed in a hypotonic environment

280
Q

plasmolysis

A

collapse of a walled cell (plant cell)’s cytoplasm due to a lack of water

281
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

do not require energy; rely on the concentraion gradient; help polar or charges substances cross the cell membrace with specific transport protein because normal transport channels cannot help them pass

282
Q

what type of substance easily diffuse across a cell membrane?

A

hydrophobic substances

283
Q

ATP in active transport

A

cells must expend energy (ATP) to move a solute against concentration gradient

284
Q

exocytosis

A

used to export bulky molecules, such as proteins or polysaccharides

285
Q

endocystosis

A

used to take in large molecules

286
Q

2 forms of exocytosis

A

excretion and secretion

287
Q

excretion

A

removal of waste

288
Q

secretion

A

export of cell products

289
Q

3 types of endocytosis

A

phagocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, pinocytosis

290
Q

pinocytosis

A

cell drinking; cells takes in fluids in small vesicles; non-specific

291
Q

phagocytosis

A

engulfment of a particle by the cell warpping cell membrane around it, forming a vacuole; non-specific

292
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

uses membrane receptors for specific solutes; the region of the membrane with receptors pinches inwards to form a vesicle; specific

293
Q

heat

A

transfer of thermal energy from one object to another

294
Q

thermodynamics

A

the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.

295
Q

system

A

the matter under study

296
Q

surroundings

A

outside the system

297
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy in the universe is constant; energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transferred or transformed

298
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

energy conversions increase the disorder of the universe (entropy)

299
Q

entropy

A

measure of disorder or randomness

300
Q

cellular respiration

A

the chemical energy stored in organice molecuels is used to produce ATP to allow the cell to perform work

301
Q

exergonic reactions

A

release energy; ex: cellular respiration

302
Q

endergonic reactions

A

input energy and store energy

303
Q

free energy

A

energy available to do work; ΔG

304
Q

energy in reactant is higher than energy in product

A

spontaneous reactions, cellular respiration, catabolic; energy is decreased

305
Q

energy in reactant is lower than energy in product

A

non-spontaneous reaction, photosynthesis, anabolic; energy in creased

306
Q

photosynthesis

A

a type of endergonic process; energy-poor reactants are used, energy is absorbed from sunlight, and energy-rich sugar molecules are produced

307
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule or breaks down complex molecules into simpler compounds

308
Q

energy coupling

A

uses energy released from exergonic reactions to power endergonic reactions

309
Q

ATP

A

adenosine trophosphate; power nearly all forms of cellular work

310
Q

phosphorylation

A

process of transferring the 3rd phosphate from ATP to other molecules

311
Q

activation energy

A

energy required to start a reaction

312
Q

-ase

A

enzyme

313
Q

function of enzymes

A

decresed the activation energy required for the reaction

314
Q

enzyme’s substrate

A

the specific reactant that an enzyme acts on because only that specific substrate molecule can fit into the enzyme’s active site

315
Q

active site/side

A

where the substrate binds

316
Q

allosteric site

A

the place on an enzyme where a molecule that is not a substrate may bind, thus changing the shape of the enzyme and influencing its ability to be active

317
Q

lock and key

A

active site on enzyme fits substrate exactly

318
Q

induced fit model

A

substrate binding to an active site improves the fit between the two

319
Q

cofactors

A

nonprotein helpers required by enzymes; it binds to the active site; can be inorganic (such as iron and copper) and organic

320
Q

coenzymes

A

organic cofactors

321
Q

competitive inhibitors

A

block substrates from entering the active site and reduce an enzyme’s productivity

322
Q

noncompetitive inhibitor (allosteri inhibitors)

A

binds to the enzym somewhere other than the active site and it changes the shape of the active site so that the substrate cannot bind to the enzyme

323
Q

competitive inhibitor

A

competes with substrate for active site

324
Q

feedback inhibitor

A

a product of the metabolic pathway that acts as an inhibitor to block metabolic reactions

325
Q

activators

A

increase the activity of enzymes

326
Q

positive feedback

A

feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output.

327
Q

negative feedback

A

a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus

328
Q

molarity formula

A

M=mol/L

329
Q

dilution formula

A

C1V1=C2V2

330
Q

lysosome

A

membrane-enclosed sac of digestive enzymes

331
Q

What is the lysosome made by?

A

Rough ER

332
Q

Where is the lysosome processed in?

A

The Golgi Apparatus

333
Q

What part of the cell functions in embryonic development in animals?

A

Lysosomes

334
Q

How do Smooth ER and Rough ER differ in structure and functions?

A

Rough ER has ribosomes attached to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane whereas Smooth ER lacks attached ribosomes.

335
Q

What does the Rough ER make?

A
  • Additional membrane for itself
  • Secretory proteins (hormones/enzymes)
  • Proteins that are embedded in the membrane (integral proteins)
336
Q

What are the functions of the Smooth ER?

A
  • The production of enzymes important in the synthesis of lipids, oils, phospholipids, and steroids
  • The production of enzymes that help process drugs, alcohol, and other potentially harmful substances
  • The storage of calcium ions
337
Q

What pH do lysosomal enzymes work best at?

A

pH of 5

338
Q

Pompe’s disease

A

Disease of inability to digest glycogen

339
Q

Tay-Sachs disease

A

Lack enzymes to digest certain lipids

340
Q

Function of vacuoles

A

Help eliminate water from the protist

341
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Metabolic compartments that do not originate from the endomembrane system

342
Q

What is the function of the mitochondrial matrix?

A
  • mitochondrial DNA (single circular chromosome)
  • ribosomes (resemble prokaryotic ribosomes)
  • enzymes that catalyze some reactions of cellular respiration
343
Q

Cristae

A

Folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane

344
Q

Function of cristae

A
  • increase surface area of the membrane

- enhance mitochondrion’s ability to produce ATP

345
Q

How are microtubules arranged in cilia/flagella?

A

9+2 pattern

346
Q

What are microfilaments made of?

A

Actin

347
Q

What are intermediate filaments made of?

A

Keratin

348
Q

Function of intermediate filaments

A

Reinforce cell shape and anchor some organelles

349
Q

Function of microfilaments

A

Support cell’s shape, cell division, motility

350
Q

Endosymbiont theory states that:

A
  • Mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes
  • Began living within larger cells
351
Q

Tonicity in plant cells

A

Hypotonic - normal/turgid

Isotonic - flaccid

Hypertonic - shriveled/plasmolyzed

352
Q

Tonicity in animal cells

A

Hypotonic - cell becomes lysed

Isotonic - normal cell

Hypertonic - cell becomes shriveled/crenated

353
Q

Function of extracellular matrix

A
  • Help hold cells together in tissues

- Protect and support the plasma membrane

354
Q

Simple light microscope

A

A magnifying lens which has a fixed magnification and uses only one lens

355
Q

Compound light microscope

A

Uses combination of lenses (objective lens and ocular lens)

356
Q

How much can compound light microscopes be magnified?

A

1000 - 1500x

357
Q

Can the specimen be alive in light microscopes?

A

Yes

358
Q

Can the specimen be alive in electron microscopes?

A

No

359
Q

How much can simple light microscopes be magnified?

A

10 - 15x

360
Q

Magnification

A

The increase in an object’s image size compared with the actual size

361
Q

Resolution

A

Measure of the clarity of an image

362
Q

How can magnification be calculated?

A

Objective magnification x eyepiece magnification

363
Q

What is a limitation of a light microscope?

A

Light microscopes cannot provide the details of a small cell’s structure

364
Q

Electron microscope

A

Microscope that uses beam of electrons instead of light to view cells

365
Q

How much can electron microscopes be magnified?

A

Up to 100,000x

366
Q

Scanning electron microscopes

A

Microscopes that study detailed architecture of cell surfaces of which the scattering leads to 3D images

367
Q

Transmission electron microscopes

A

Microscopes that study the details of internal cell structure

368
Q

How do electron microscopes function?

A

By super heating a fungsten filament that releases electrons

369
Q

How do scanning electron microscopes function?

A

They dehydrate specimen and coat them with thin layer of gold that scatters electrons

370
Q

How do transmission electron microscopes function?

A

Goes through tungsten filament, gets reflected with electromagnetic objective lens and eyepiece lens and hits the phosphor scent screen which we can look at it from

371
Q

Can the specimen be alive in light microscopes?

A

Yes

372
Q

Parfocal

A

Lens that stays in focus when magnification is changed

373
Q

Resolution is proportional to…

A

the wavelength of the illuminating source

374
Q

scientific study of life

A

Biology

375
Q

all structures are build upon pre-existing structures, ordering from simple to complex

A

Order

376
Q

has 1 parent, meaning clones to the origin; identical offspring to the parent

A

Asexual reproduction

377
Q

has 2 parents; creates genetic variation because the product and the parents are different

A

Sexual reproduction

378
Q

Energy of an object due to its position/ structure

A

Potential energy

379
Q

Energy due to motion

A

Kinetic energy

380
Q

convert kinetic energy to potential energy; make organic molecules from molecules

A

producers

381
Q

organisms that make food by themselves

A

autotrophs

382
Q

use light energy

A

photoautotrophs

383
Q

use chemical energy

A

chemoautotrophs

384
Q

cannot make their own food, but rely on producers to survive

A

consumers

385
Q

organisms that depend on foods from other organisms

A

heterotrophs

386
Q

eat plants/ autotrophs

A

herbivores

387
Q

eat animals/ heterotrophs

A

carnivores

388
Q

eat both plants and animals/ autotroph and heterotroph

A

omnivores

389
Q

eat dead autotrophs and heterotrophs

A

decomposers

390
Q

capacity to do work

A

energy

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