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Geography > Migration, Identity and Sovereignty EQ1 and EQ2 > Flashcards

Migration, Identity and Sovereignty EQ1 and EQ2 Flashcards

1
Q

Define globalisation

A

the increased interdependence between countries as a result of increased flows of globalisation; capital, goods, services, people and information

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2
Q

Define migration

A

movement of people from 1 geographical location to another with the intention of settling ether permanently or temporarily

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3
Q

Give some examples of what has caused the flows to increase?

A
  • Information= fiber optic cables/internet/social media
  • Capital= TNCs/tax havens/online banking
  • Services= video conference software
  • Goods= transport advancements- containerization (intermodal)/jet aircraft
  • People= glob-enviro refugees/budget airlines/info and internet
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4
Q

Define internally displaced people

A

a person who is forced to flee their home but who remains within their country’s borders

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5
Q

Define asylum seeker

A

a person who has left their home country as a political refugee and is seeking asylum in another country

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6
Q

Define economic migrant

A

a person who travels from one country to another in order to improve their standard of living via work

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7
Q

Define refugee

A

a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution or natural disaster and who has been grated permission to remain in a country

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8
Q

What are the trends in internal migration?

A

rural-urban migration

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9
Q

What are the trends in international migration?

A
  • between developed economies
  • between developing economies
  • from developing to developed economies
  • majority of migration takes place between neighbor countries rather than between continents
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10
Q

Describe Lees push pull model

A

It says that there are push factors e.g. war, disaster and crime which make people want to move away and pull factors e.g. jobs, health and education which make people want to move there. There are also intervening obstacles which may deter people from migrating, e.g. money/cost, visa requirements, language barrier. If there are less obstacles, people have more confidence to migrate when paired with strong push and pull factors.

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11
Q

What can you use Lee’s push pull model for?

A
  • internal; rural-urban
  • international; periphery-core
  • economic migration
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12
Q

Describe the core-periphery model

A

Core often has older population and likely to experience skills gaps (jobs vacancies/shill shortages/higher wage).
Periphery has younger population and lower wages
Migrants move from periphery to core so periphery is dependent on core from employment (as send remittances home) and core depends on periphery for workers

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13
Q

What can you use core-periphery model for?

A
  • internal; In China movement from central to Eastern province
    In UK movement from North to London
  • international; intra EU and Poland to Germany
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14
Q

Describe the Neoliberal economic theory

A
  • States that an economy will grow faster/ perform better if freedom of movement exists
  • e.g. people are able to move to any part of the country/between countries (geographical mobility of labour)
  • skill shortages areas drive up wages and higher wages attract people to that area
  • job vacancy filled so increased output and likely to be a better skills match so employee is better at the job
  • increased productivity, output and economic growth

(can evaluate with brain drain)

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15
Q

How has globalisation led to an increase in migration within developing/emerging nations?

A
  • global shift of manufacturing was facilitated by containerization and improvements in information flows
  • which enables TNCs to outsource/offshore production to lower cost countries
  • e.g. China whos gov encouraged this through the creation of SEZs e.g. Shenzen
  • encouraging rural-urban migration
  • this is supported by strong push factors in rural China e.g. malnutrition rates at approx. 18% linked to mechanization of farming an strong pull factors in Eastern/coastal provinces e.g. jobs, decreased malnutrition (3% urban areas)
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16
Q

How has globalisation led to an increase in migration within developed nations?

A
  • global shift has led to the decline of industry in many developed countries such as the UK
  • deindustrialisation has led to spiral of decline in many Northern areas e.g. less steel industry in Sheffield
  • as a result in 1986 UK government brought in the ‘Big bang policy’ to increase financial sector jobs- mainly based in London
  • to change the economic sector balance (Clarke-fisher model)
  • the jobs are highly paid in this sector creating pull factors towards London
  • lead to North-South drift
  • increased migration within the UK
  • increased FDI and capital flows from London on international scale
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17
Q

Describe how the role of national governments could be seen as more significant than globalisation to migration
(LE for increased migration in developing countries)

A
  • however the role of national governments could be more significant than globalisation in increasing migration in developing countries
  • Chinas gov have implemented the Hukou system to limit migration into urban areas
  • to be able to live in urban areas citizens require a permit
  • this can be very expensive to purchase e.g. in Beijing yearly permits cost the same as an average yearly rural salary
  • this increases intervening obstacles (Lees model) and decreases pull factors as permit workers have poorer working conditions e.g. less breaks and healthcare access (due to cost)
  • therefore decreases the role of globalisation in determining rates of migration
  • on balance globalisation is the most significant factor as it has impacted huge amounts of switched on countries, compared to this specific singular migration policy in China- on a smaller scale
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18
Q

Describe how the pattern of migration may decrease due to social shifts
(LE for increased migration in developed countries)

A
  • however due to social shifts within the country this pattern of migration may not continue long term for a number of reasons
  • following covid and the wide spread improvement of platforms like Teams
  • increased working from home, less need for North- South migration and pull factors remain outside of London such as better air quality (health impacts) and more affordable housing (social impacts), mean less need for migration
  • more recent gov policies e.g. Northern powerhouse and investment into Salford Quays will create jobs, causing a positive multiplier effect
  • therefore over time internal migration will slow
  • +linked judgement
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19
Q

How has globalisation led to an increase in migration between developed nations?

A
  • migration has increased between developed countries
  • political globalisation has led to the formation of trade blocs e.g. social and monetary union of the Eu which enables citizens to live and work in any EU country
  • 23 member sates and 4 non-member states are within the Schenger agreement which decreases intervening obstacles as no passport or visa requirements
  • increased confidence for EU citizens to migrate. 1.7 million people cross a Schengen border daily for work
  • supporting the Neoliberal economic theory and often evidencing the core-periphery model as citizens migrate as economic migrants
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20
Q

Describe how migration might actually decrease between developed nations (LE for increased migration between nations due to globalisation)

A
  • however, along the rise in globalisation and consequent migration there has also been an increase in modern nationalism evidenced through the rise of far right political groups e.g. Brexit party/EDL
  • they express fear over a loss of soverenity over borders and decision making and lobby governments to adopt tighter migration policies
  • shown by UK Brexit vote
  • a a result of initial globalisation and migration the change in policy would result in less migration in the future showing how globalisation can lead to less migration over time
    • linked judgement
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21
Q

How has globalisation led to increase migration between countries? (environmental refugees)

A
  • as a consequence of economic globalisation and global shift
  • increased length of globalisation
  • more use of containerization and more miles of transporting goods
  • increased CO2 emissions from transport and manufacturing which contributes to EGHE
  • more SLR due to rising global temps, due to thermal expansion and ablation of cryosphere and increased storms/storm surges
  • increased environmental refugees e.g. New Zealand grant 75 citizens from Tuvalu residency each year
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22
Q

Describe how globalisation could reduce the amount of environmental refugees (LE for more migration)

A
  • however, increased flow of information and political globalisation have led to more international agreements on climate change as a result of more awareness
  • e.g. COP 28- agreements to transition away from fossil fuels & committing to the climate loss fund
  • encourages the switch to green technology/energy generation using more recyclables & renewables in a country’s energy mix
  • decreased CO2 emissions
  • as shown on the Kuznets curve, less environmental damage over time
  • avoids contribution to tipping points
  • globalisation means environmental refugees wont increase at such a fast rate
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23
Q

What % of people live in a country other than their birth country?

A

3-4%
although it varies from country to country

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24
Q

Singapore case study

A

Type of migration policy= 2 tier system

Liberal for ‘foreign talent’
- mainly comes from developed countries & work in finance
- 3rd largest global financial hub
- can gain residency in 2 years

Closed door for ‘foreign workers’
- mainly from Thailand and Philippines
- stricter rules including regular HIV and pregnancy testing- if possible migrants are repatriated

Reason= economic (grow financial sector)

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25
Q

Japan case study

A

Type of migration policy= Closed door policy
2.2% of population is migrant (norm for developed country is 5%)

Barriers/intervening obstacles;
- short term visa system for migrants
- famous ‘pass or go home’ citizenship test- less than 1% success rate
- language barrier
- policy makers want social cohesion and fear migration will increase division and crime

Reason= social
(LE; may need to change policy in future due to population decline, since 2010, and ageing population)

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26
Q

Australia case study

A

Type of migration policy= points based/skills based system

  • Roughly 50% of migrants are from India, UK & China
  • 70% are accepted based on skills shortages e.g. medicine and engineering
  • Majority of migrants are under 40; 25-33= 30 points
    40-45= 15 points
  • helps to offset the ageing population which would otherwise lead to a high dependency ratio- causes strain on healthcare/government budgets
  • The average migrant conturbutes 10% more per capita to GDP than the average Australian

Reason= economic/social (ageing pop and skills gaps)

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27
Q

Describe the economic reasons for changes in migration

A
  • the phase in the economic cycle will influence both source and destination country
  • e.g. during periods of boom/strong economic growth migrants are more likely to move to that country
  • increased GDP/output
  • more need for workers (derived demand)
  • more job opportunities
  • pull factors increase (Lees model)
  • more international migration
  • recession in source country (push factors)
  • migration within country (geographical mobility of labour)
  • multiplier effect continues trend
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28
Q

Describe the political factors, within a country, for changes in migration
(changing government)

A
  • changing government and their political view can impact minority groups
  • In Myanmar, the government practiced patronage towards the Buddhist majority
  • this included persecution of the Rohingya muslims through systematic discrimination and targeted violence
  • 78% were classed as illegal migrants by the government, their citizenship wasn’t recognised and villages were burnt down. More push factors (Lees model)
  • Many fled to Bangladesh around a million Rohingya remain living in refugee camps in Coxs Bazar
  • therefore certain internal political/religious conflict can increase the number of refugees from a certain source to a different destination country
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29
Q

Describe the political factors, between countries, for changes in migration (conflict between countries)

A
  • conflict between countries can lead to an increase in migration between countries
  • In 2014, following the annexation of Crimea, Russia sent 150,000 ethnic Russians into Crimea over the Kerch bridge to gain strategic advantage in their referendum on the peninsulas sovereignty and gain a warm water port- Sevastopol- which can be used year round for trade
  • in 2022 this escalated into a wider spread conflict with the Russia Ukraine conflict due to Russia’s fears about Ukraine joining NATO/ falling into EUs sphere of influence
  • conflict so far has led to an increase in migration between the Ukraine and other countries such as members of the EU and the UK. Around 1/3 of the population displaced and over 6 million refugees
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30
Q

Describe the political factors, within countries, for changes in migration (loss of legitimacy of gov)

A
  • loss of legitimacy of government within a country can lead to increasing migration between countries
  • The Arab springs uprising in the MENA region starting in 2010 involved revolution from younger generations against the ruling elite in the MENA region
  • Governments then faced opposing forces/resistance movements e.g. in Syria the free Syranian army as a power void was created
  • this lead to civil war and the threat of loss of life (push factors, Lees model)
  • this increased (illegal) migration from MENA regions towards EU countries, by 2015 over 1 million migrants had crossed the Mediterranean
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31
Q

Describe the environmental factors for changing migration (SLR)

A
  • EGHE, rising global temps
  • planet has warmed approximately 1 degree C since pre industrial times
  • Eustatic sea level rise due to thawing of the cryopshere (IPCC 50%) and thermal expansion (40%)
  • risen 8 inches since industrial revolution
  • in addition intensity of tropical storms increases, as sea temps reach 26.5 degrees C
  • increasing flood risk
  • in Bangladesh 53% of coastal areas including farmland affected by increased salinity linked to EGHE. 40cm of SLR= 11% of Bangladesh submerged
  • push factors (Lees model)
  • People forced to migrate internally or internationally
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32
Q

Describe the environmental factors for changing migration (rainfall)

A
  • EGHE, global warming
  • increased volumes of conventional rainfall along the ITCZ as a 1 degree C rise in temperature leads to 7% increase in moisture holding capacity of the air
  • increased intensity of monsoonal rainfall e.g. Pakistan floods 2022, the Sindh region experienced 784% more rainfall than the August average
  • created internal displacement and refugees. 10 million displaced
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33
Q

Describe the environmental factors for changing migration (drought)

A
  • EGHE
  • increasing temps
  • expansion of Hadley cell as consequence of rising temps at equator
  • causes increased high pressure systems between 30 and 32 degrees Latitude
  • causing meteorological drought then hydrological drought for example in NE Syria 2006-2010 drought 800,000 lost their income and 85% of livestock died
  • forced 300,000 rural families to migrate to Aleppo and damascus as agricultural productivity dropped by 1/3. Push factors (Lees model) Internal rural to urban migration
  • increased population density in urban areas
  • Exacerbated existing socioeconomic issues around insufficient provision of water and electricity contributing to the Arab springs uprising 2010 where 1/4 of the population fled. Increased international migration
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34
Q

Explain the role of social media in the source country on migration

A
  • younger generations have access to mobile phone technology
  • filmed protests in Tunisia and uploaded to social media. #arabspring and Facebook used to organise demonstrations in multiple countries (especially in Egypt)
  • News of protests spread rapidly across MENA region sparking protests in other countries created further push (civil unrest and danger)/ pull factors (awareness of lifestyle in other countries)
  • Pace and scale of the increase in number of migrants in a given time increased due to information flows
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35
Q

Explain the role of social media in destination countries on migration

A
  • images of protests and migrants making dangerous crossings across the Mediterranean seen the those in EU
  • images shared using the #refugeeswelcome. Put political pressure on national governments to adopt a more open door policy for refugees
  • ongoing legacy with the use of Banksy rescue boat
  • decreasing intervening obstacles (Lees model)
  • increased confidence to migrate
  • increased pace and scale of migration
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36
Q

Explain the role of the internet on migration

A
  • increased information flows from existing migrants
  • decreased friction of distance
  • decreases intervening obstacles e.g. where to set up/language barriers
    e.g. diaspora and provides additional pull factors limits pull factors in source country as easier contact available with family that remain via zoom etc
  • increased migration
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37
Q

What are the causes of migration?

A
  • conflict
  • poverty
  • drought
  • expansion of Hadley cell
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38
Q

What are the consequences of migration?

A
  • more closed door approach to migration
  • risk of death
  • support for migrants
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39
Q

Describe how migration can lead to a more closed door approach to migration policies

A
  • increased flow of migrants from MENA regions could lead to a more closed door approach to migration policy
  • public perception on migration level being too high e.g. potential strain on healthcare and education systems
  • increased growth of right wing political groups adding pressure to governments to decrease number of migrants
  • migration policy gains publicity
  • more pressure on governments to decrease migrants accepted into the country
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40
Q

Describe how migration can increase risk of death

A
  • increased flow of migrants from MENA region increases risk of death
  • crossing the Mediterranean in small boats in dangerous particularly if they are over boarded. Estimates 186,000 people crossed in 2023
  • 2500 dead/missing
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41
Q

Define assimilation

A

the eventual adpotion of the cultural traits belonging to the host or majority community by a migrant or minority community

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42
Q

Define diaspora

A

people who have spread or been displaced from their homeland now living in certain areas together in a different country

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43
Q

What is the perception of many populations regarding migration?

A

population often think the migrant population is larger than it actually is

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44
Q

Between who can political tensions arise?

A
  • divide in society
  • different political parties; rise of nationalist movements/ pressure to adopt tougher immigration laws/ right vs left wing- democrat vs republican
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45
Q

How many migrants are in the US?

A
  • US has more immigrants than any other countries in the world
  • more than 40 million living in the US were born in another country
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46
Q

What is the origin country for most migrants?

A

Mexico is the top origin country of the US immigrant population
In 2018, roughly 11.2 million immigrants living in the US were from there (25% of total migrants)

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47
Q

What different views do Americans hold on immigration?

A
  • About 2/3 of Americans (66%) say immigrants strengthen the country “because of their talent and hard work”
  • However, a quarter (24%) say immigrants burden the country by taking jobs, housing and healthcare
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48
Q

How are Mexican migrants distributed throughout the USA?

A
  • spatial distribution is highly uneven
  • California and Texas have the highest concentration
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49
Q

Describe the economic impacts of Mexican migration in the US

A
  • vital part of economic growth. Migrants come to work in key industries and so from the point of view of their bosses are beneficial for economic growth. This includes vineyards in California and restaurant kitchens in NY. - Illegal migrants often work very long hours for little pay
  • Backlash from some Americans who believe that Americans should get the jobs
  • some believe they are being exploited by big companies who are making profits at the expense of their welfare
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50
Q

Describe the cultural impacts of Mexican migration in the USA

A
  • growing Hispanic populations (e.g. Miami( has led to changing food, music and language
  • Spanish TV and radio stations are popular in some states
  • Netflix is increasing Spanish shows on its platform
  • Some Americans fear Spanish will replace English as main language
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51
Q

Describe the demographic changes of Mexican migration in the USA

A
  • useful to cope with ageing population
  • Youthful migrants offset the demographic population
  • rapidly changing the ethnicity of many parts. 1/5 of the US population is Hispanic
  • number of Americans aged 65+ projected to increase from 58 million in 2022 to 82 million by 2050 (increase of 47%)
  • could be a reason for better perception of migration to decrease dependency ratio
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52
Q

Describe the social changes of Mexican migration to the USA

A
  • high crime rates
  • drug smuggling and gang problems
  • calls to heavily restrict migration from Mexico and enhance and expand border fence to prevent illegal migration as seen with Trumps wall
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53
Q

Describe the political challenges of Mexican migration to the USA

A
  • among Democrats, 88% think immigrants strength the country with their hard work, just 8% say they’re a burden
  • Among Republicans, 41% say immigrants strength the country, while 44% say they burden it
  • as exemplified by differences in policy e.g. Trumps wall vs Obamas call for work permits to be issued to an estimated 8 million illegal workers
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54
Q

Where are the biggest destination for intra-EU migration?

A
  1. Germany (886.3 migrants)
  2. Spain
  3. France
  4. Italy
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55
Q

What % of EU movers were of working age?

A

73% in 2018
(12.9 million)
shows most of Eu migration is economic

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56
Q

What trend of migration is being seen over time?

A

slower growth in movement than previously

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57
Q

What is the perception of the demographics migrating?

A

young people (aged 20-24) are migrating from southern, eastern and central Europe and arrviing in western and northern Europe and will stay there

58
Q

What is the reality of the demographics migrating within the EU?

A
  • the perception is true
  • However, there are 2 exceptions;
    In Denmark and Finland, which both saw a net loss in intra Eu migration of young people.
  • The biggest gain was seen in Germany (492,000) and biggest loss in Poland (-268,000)
  • Germany is the core country and Poland the periphery country

(LE: long term there increasing evidence for circular movement with a mixture of short and long term migrants with short term moving onwards to another country or back to their source)

59
Q

What are some reasons for tensions regarding migration?

A
  • taking jobs and leading to unemployment for UK nationals
  • increased crime rates
60
Q

What is the economic perception and reality of migration?

A

Perception= increased competition for jobs and unemployment for UK nationals

Reality= 4% unemployment rate is very low and has been falling since the financial crisis
No evidence of fall in wages but slowing growth rate for lowest paid-25%
Migrants often fill skills shortages e.g. 1/4 hospitals workers in UK were born in different country (26% of doctors are foreign nationals)

61
Q

What is the social perception and reality of migration within the UK?

A

Perception= more migration meant increased crime rates
Migrants drain public funds and don’t pay taxes

Reality= crime rates have decreased when migration has been rising
Of those crimes reported Eastern Europeans committed more thefts than British people but British were more likely to commit violet crimes and drug related offences
European migrants paid more taxes than they took in benefits or public services 2016-17
The average adult EU migrant contributed £3740 more than the average UK citizen

62
Q

Give an example of how the public opinion on migration could be changed

A

News outlets stories became more prominent during Brexit and used scare mongering, devisive language such as the Daily express

63
Q

Give a social reason for increasing MENA migration to Europe

A
  • fleeing conflict
  • conflicts in region escalated after the Arab springs 2010/11 where mass protests from younger generations led to a loss of legitimacy for many governments e.g. Syria
  • rise of groups such as Free Syrian army= civil war as groups sought to fill power void
  • increased the threat of death- strong push factor (Lees model)
64
Q

Give an economic reason for increasing MENA migration to Europe

A
  • escape poverty
  • MENA region- % living in poverty has doubled since 2011
  • perception that there will be better paid work in Europe providing pull factor (Lees model)
  • increased wages, increase SOL and their families as well through remittances
65
Q

Give an environmental reason for increasing MENA migration to Europe

A
  • frequency and severity of meteorological drought
  • socioeconomic drought and water insecurity
  • MENA falls on edge of Hadley cell which has expanded 1-2 degrees of latitude N/S due to EGHE
  • increase in high pressure systems and less inputs than the multiyear average
  • crop failure- strong push factor (Lees model)
66
Q

Describe a social positive perception of migration

A
  • increased diversity which brings more view points/ knowledge
  • lead to productive forms of cooperation
  • e.g. Indian doctors make up 9% of all UK doctors
  • bring new skills and increase quality of healthcare, decreasing wait-times
  • standard of health/QOL in UK will increase
  • increased contribution to the tax base
  • e.g. 2016/17 average EU migrant contributed £3740 more than average UK citizen
  • increase government spending
  • increase quality of services e.g. education and healthcare
67
Q

Describe a demographic positive perception of migration

A
  • migrants tend to be younger- 2018 73% Eu migrants were of working age as they are looking for work (economic migration)
  • helps to offset ageing population
  • decreases issues around increasing dependency ratio
  • this is where there are reducing numbers of workers and tax payers resourcing health and social care to older generations
  • less stress on healthcare systems
67
Q

Describe a economic positive perception of migration

A
  • migrants fill labour shortages, both high and low skilled
  • this allows for optimal service delivery which means healthcare waiting times can be reduced
  • 26% doctors are foreign nationals in UK
  • allows business to be optimally productive (neo liberal economic theory)
  • increased GDP and more tax revenue for gov
68
Q

Describe social negative perception of migration

A
  • increased migration into urban areas
  • increased demand for services such as healthcare/education
    (belief that migrants don’t contribute to tax base to fund these)
  • gov budget is spread across an increased population
  • les for domestic residents and more anti-migrant sentiments
  • could increase hate crimes against those of other origins and create tensions within the community
68
Q

Describe economic negative perception of migration

A
  • increased migration means increased competition for jobs
  • leads to downward pressure on wages due to larger labour pool
  • belief that this is contributing to low incomes & unemployment in domestic population
69
Q

Describe a cultural positive perception of migration

A
  • when a diaspora assimilate into majority culture
  • more choice and variety into lives of majority population
  • new music styles emerge which can add to QOL as well as new cuisines
  • e.g. Ska music- mix of rock and reggae
70
Q

Describe demographic negative perception of migration

A
  • source countries view migration as negative
  • leads to loss of working age population
  • leads to both brain and braun drain from periphery to core
  • leads to businesses not being as productive- spiral of decline
  • known as backwash effect
71
Q

Describe a cultural negative perception of migration

A
  • some people fear cultural erosion as migrant group grows
  • migrants from Mexico-US represent growing Hispanic population
  • 1/5 of US population is Hispanic focusing on certain areas such as Miami
  • has lead to changes in food, music, language- Netflix shows some series in Spanish in some states
  • fear of replacement of English language
72
Q

Describe the level of linguistic unity in Iceland

A
  • strong linguistic unity
  • due to physical location e.g. one of the northern most inhabited countries
  • developed homogenous population and language
  • only 1 official language in Iceland; Icelandic ranked as very difficult language to learn
  • for migrants to fully assimilate they will need to learn Icelandic
  • Despite 98% speaking fluent English- in social situations/ outside tourism sector Icelandic is used
  • historically with physical isolation and difficulty of language, high intervening obstacles
  • decreased migration
  • further enhancing linguistic unity
73
Q

Describe the level of linguistic unity in Singapore

A
  • linguistic unity due to development of shared language (can be used to argue high or low unity)
  • Singapore is the worlds 3rd largest Financial sector
  • high levels of migration due to strong pull factors (Lees model)
  • lots of migration from India, China and multiple other countries
  • creating a melting pot of cultures
  • known as a country ‘where East meets West’
  • creates a sense of unity through embracing different cultures and languages
  • e.g. 4 official languages combined to create ‘Singlish’
  • shows a new form of linguistic unity
74
Q

Evaluation of Iceland’s high linguistic unity

A
  • could argue that linguistic unity is decreasing over time due to growth in tourism sector
  • 10% of Iceland’s GDP comes from tourism (growing sector)
  • and growth in migrants over time (especially from Poland) as friction of distance is lessen through transport developments
  • could mean increasing diaspora within Reykjavik decreasing linguistic unity
75
Q

Evaluation of Singapore’s linguistic unity

A
  • government launched ‘speak good English’ programme in 2010 to aim to eradicate Singlish (unsuccessful)
  • resistance to changing of language
76
Q

Describe the level of cultural unity in Iceland

A
  • strong cultural unity
  • developed through physical isolation and low levels of migration historically
    -e.gh. one of the most northern inhabited countries
  • also due to location, fish are in abundance and difficult to conduct livestock farming and other agriculture due to terrain and weather
  • cultural unity achieved via food/culture around fish
  • as exemplified by the failure of McDonalds in Iceland (import cost of beef too high and lack of demand from locals)
77
Q

Describe the level of cultural unity in Singapore

A
  • shows strong cultural unity through embracing its wide range of cultures to form a new melting pot culture which is supportive/accepting
  • due to its physical location busy trading route ‘Strait of Malacca’- 2nd biggest port in the world and role as 3rd largest financial hub
  • 40% of population= migrants from a range of different countries
  • leads to multiple religions e.g. Buddhism-33%, Christianity-18% and Islam-14%
  • following the ‘Race riots’ 1964 Singapore now celebrates ‘racial harmony day’ increased social interactions between different groups and positive place attachment and lived experience. Cultural cohesion
  • reinforces culture of acceptance, sharing cultural unity
78
Q

How can physical borders dictate borders?

A
  • mountains e.g. Pyrenes
    snowy mountainous terrain in winter, known mountain passes are easier to control/monitor. difficult to cross- gradient, snow fall/ temperature
  • Rivers e.g. River Rhine Germany/France
    high fast/flowing discharge, difficult to cross without bridges, easily control migration
  • Sea/channel e.g. English channel France/UK
    strong currents in English channel makes transport difficult, very busy shipping route more risk, visibility (e.g. cliffs) see people coming so ability to control
79
Q

How does a physical border decrease internal conflict?

A
  • Physical border to migration increases intervening obstacles (Lees model)
  • Less confidence to migrate so less migration
  • Shared/common culture/history develops within the country- cultural/linguistic/ethnic unity
  • Separate nation states with sovereignty either side of border
  • more homogenous population develops more legitimate government representative of its citizens
  • patronage less likely
  • internal conflict less likely
80
Q

How does a physical border increase conflict between countries?

A
  • the physical border can create a sense of cultural unity (as explained in previous point)
  • creates a feeling of superiority to surrounding nation states/ less understanding of their culture which seems ‘different’
  • growth of nationalism/national pride may encourage countries citizens and leaders to want to spread their ideals e.g. language, religion, political systems, sport etc.
  • conflict more likely between nation states (international) as other countries may feel the same/not want to embrace another culture being imposed upon them
81
Q

How do colonial borders lead to conflict?

A
  • post colonial determined borders based on splitting up resources rather than on considerations of ethnicity
  • multiple ethnicities within a country e.g. 15% Tutsis and 85% Hutus in Rwanda
  • the government would be representative of one of the groups in society- Belgium gave patronage to Tutsis. favoring the minority
  • sometimes the government may pay patronage to their ethnic group
  • this leads to resentment from other ethnics groups within the country e.g. Hutus staged series of riots in 1959 against the government
  • this can result in conflict- Hutus reversed the patronage and overthrew the Tutsi government lead to a Tutsi genocide killing over 800,000 Tutsis
82
Q

How did the Rwandan genocide decrease the likelihood of more conflict in the region?

A

However,
- significant reputational damage was done on an international scale
- decreases likelihood of this happening again in the future
- Rwanda has some of the strictest anticorruption rules- 49/180 on global corruption index and economy is 9x larger than it was in 1994
- trusted by core nations e.g. UK who set up the migration and economic development pact partnership so anyone entering the UK illegally can be sent on a one way flight to Rwanda

83
Q

How can contested borders lead to conflict?

A
  • lack of recognition of nation states e.g. Taiwan by the international community- 11/193 UN countries recognize it separately from China as China claims it as part of their ‘one China’ policy
  • creates tension between China and Taiwan as disagreement exists as to the degree of autonomy/sovereignty of Taiwan and therefore over the legitimacy of the border
  • If Taiwan declare independence China will respond using hard power and military
  • Current tensions shown by increasing arms purchased by Taiwan (from USA) and China sending war planes to fly over Taiwan’s air space (2021)
  • Chinas strength of monitoring and political power are likely to increase tensions e.g. China refuses to have diplomatic relations with countries who don’t recognize their ‘One China policy’. Beijing have even fined 7/11 for referring to Taiwan as own country showing the extent of their monitoring and intensity of tensions
  • could easily escalate into conflict in the future as tensions continue to rise
  • (could extend with USA involvement with arms and China challenging USA superpower status- USA as ‘worlds police’ could also get involved)
84
Q

How do contested borders increase population movements?

A
  • Lack of legitimacy over a border such as that of the Crimea peninsula can lead to population movements
  • as seen in 2014 when Russia decided to annex Crimea
  • Russia saw the border as lacking legitimacy due to the majority ethic Russian population recorded in the 2014 census stating 65% of people in Crimea identified as Russian and 82% spoke Russian in the home as the main language
  • Russian authorities encouraged 150,000 Russians to migrate across Kerch bridge into Russia to increase the legitimacy of their claim to the peninsula as they annexed the region
  • the increased tensions who also encouraged Ukrainians to move away from the peninsula
  • show how lack of recognition of the whole of Ukraine as a nation state, which questions over the Crimean situation caused population movements
  • since with the escalation to the Ukraine Russian war around 1/4 of Ukraine’s population have left the country
85
Q

British empire case study- historic nationalism

A
  • 1880- 1/3 of land and 1/4 of worlds population was part of the British empire (scale)
  • used to diffuse English language, British laws, art and sport on a global scale (soft power, cultural pillar)
  • Trade (British East India company) and political influence led to direct rule over India by the British parliament which became known as the ‘British Raj’
  • Wealth and power from colonial rule of India meant the British empire overtook Spain and France making it a superpower- this lead to rivalry and international tension
  • anti-colonial sentiment grew following India’s support of Britain in WW1. Rise of demands for independence resulted in Amritsar Massacre where British soldiers killed several hundred unarmed protestors (1919) further fueling calls for independence
  • 19th century same parts of the British empire became dominions by 1960s majority of Britain’s territories became independent
  • Many remain in the commonwealth e.g. Australia all still have union jack as part of their flag (56 members)
86
Q

What is the role of 19th century nationalism in the development of empire?

A
  • 19th century nationalism within England come from increased national identity
  • created a sense of unity through symbolism e.g. union jack, sport, religion, legal systems
  • increases sense of superiority and nationalism
  • aim to increase sphere of influence extending culture beyond borders via colonialism
  • with each victory increased sense of national pride and superiority
  • increased nationalism and further driven to expand and increased financial means through more resources and military personnel (hard power)= ability to build empire
  • 1880- 1/3 of land mass and 1/4 of worlds population under British colonial rule
87
Q

Why has empire declined?

A
  1. high cost (of WW2)
  2. increased anticolonial sentiment (India/Africa)
  3. economic sector balance shift (less need for raw materials)
  4. younger Europeans protesting about financial rules
88
Q

How does the disintegration of empire result in conflict?
(empire dismantled quickly)

A
  • empire dismantled quickly
  • leaves behind a power vacuum/void
  • lack of stability (economic) and development
  • in many new countries power is seized by military e.g. Mobutu in DRC
89
Q

How does the disintegration of empire result in conflict?
(government not representative)

A
  • upon independence, government in place (Tutsi) may not be representative of population (Tutsi are minority) if they are put in charge by ex-colonial leaders
  • lack of legitimacy due to patronage
  • increased resentment
  • conflict e.g. Tutsi government overthrown
90
Q

How does the disintegration of empire result in conflict?
(spread of independence movements)`

A
  • as more countries gain independence there’s a spread of independence movements within countries that remain in the empire
  • can lead to conflict if colonial power wishes to remain in charge
  • e.g. Amritsar massacre in India- unarmed pro-independence protestors shot
  • fuel further resentment and conflict
91
Q

Define neo-colonialism

A

indirect control by developed nations over former colonies/less developed countries
e.g. SAPs conditions attached to loans
cultural/military influence
economic support
(links to dependency theory)

92
Q

Describe governance in Britain in the 16th century

A
  • governance at a local scale (e.g. local lords) managing their areas
  • within England- different rules, cultures, traditional dialects- regional identity
93
Q

Describe the levels of nationalism in the 21st century

A
  • there’s increased globalisation
    This increases modern nationalism as more migration, less border controls, less sovereignty, more antimigration sentiment e.g. Brexit
  • formation of trade blocs
    This decreases nationalism e.g. European citizens viewing themselves as European due to ease of travel/migration/free movement in EU
94
Q

Wind of change case study

A
  • famous speech- ideas of gaining independence
  • 17 African nations gained independence in 1960s
  • big scale
95
Q

Explain the economic effects of the winds of change

A
  • DRC gained independence from Belgium
  • power seized by Mobutu (military leader) due to power void following colonial rule
  • this led to economic and political effects/mismanagement due to corruption/lack of experience ruling a country
  • He amassed a personal fortune of $4 billion and created lots of debt for the country
  • lack of development programmes due to lack of funding- pre conditions for take off not met (modernisation theory)
  • less outsourcing/FDI to DRC and worse domestic economy
  • poor economic performance due to ‘resource curse’ mismanagement caused by lack of effective post colonial rule
96
Q

Explain the political effects of the winds of change

A
  • DRC gained independence from Belgium
  • power seized by Mobutu (military leader) due to power void following colonial rule
  • He amassed a personal fortune of $4 billion and created lots of debt for the country
  • resulted in cancellation of development programmes
  • led to cross border tensions as he was removed from power assisted by neighboring states 1990s contributing to 6 nations war
97
Q

Explain the environmental effects of the winds of change

A
  • various power struggles that resulted from the winds of change led to loss of vegetation
  • 6 nations war (linked to the removal of Mobutu in DRC)
  • huge refugee camps set up
  • In DRC, 18,000 UN peacekeepers used local timbre of create shelters
  • deforestation
  • decreased biodiversity/habitat loss and less of a carbon store as less trees so less photosynthesis
  • more GHGs such as CO2 in atmosphere, EGHE
98
Q

Explain the social effects of the winds of change

A
  • due to corruption and mismanagement from military leaders who seized control after colonial powers left
  • e.g. Mobutu in DRC- amassed a personal fortune of $4 billion and high levels of debt
  • lack of FDI and slow domestic economic growth meaning less income/corporation tax receipts less money available to spend on improving social development
  • less government investment into healthcare and education
  • DRC rank 179th on HDI measure
  • demonstrating poor healthcare/low life expectancy = 60 years in DRC
99
Q

Vietnam case study- ex-colonial state

A
  • France rulers forced out in 1954
  • created rivalry between the North and South in the absence of colonial rulers
  • North= communist (allied with Russia and China)
  • South= capitalist (allied with USA)
  • 1955 Vietnam war; soviet and Chinese military led campaign to capture South Vietnam
  • 1965 USA intervened
  • Victory= North (unified under communist government- remained impoverished and politically isolated by USA)
  • 1986 economic reform (deregulated financial markets encourage FDI) to open up to worlds economy= global shift
100
Q

What were the economic effects of Vietnam war?

A
  • estimates 3 million killed- reduction in work force, tax base and skills base= reduced economic output/productivity
  • impact on key export industries= agriculture impacted as paddy fields bombed by USA to disrupt food supply. Reduced ability to produce and export rice (Vietnam had to import 1 million tonnes of rice from USA)- reduced economic growth
  • political and economic isolation= reduced trade links with the rest of the world due to communist practices/governance until 1986
  • financial cost to USA was $950 billion
101
Q

What were the environmental effects of Vietnam war?

A
  • 18 million gallons of Agent Orange sprayed by USA destroying thousands of acres of forest and habitat for wildlife, with potential knock on effects for biodiversity
102
Q

What were the social effects of the Vietnam war?

A
  • 3 million killed
  • 50% innocent Vietnamese civilians
  • Agent orange deaths; 400,000 and birth defects 500,000 in children which was also linked to an increase in cancer rates. Likely to increase poverty (due to loss of wage earner and disabilities)
103
Q

How has colonialism impacted migration patterns?
(migration from former colonies to imperial core)

A
  • high levels of migration from former colony to the imperial core is evident through history
  • 19th century colonialism is characterized by cu7ltural diffusion eg. .spread of English language, sport so it became normalized in the colony as people understood the ‘British way of life’
  • when opportunities for citizens from former colonies became available e.g. to fill labour shortages as seen with the ‘windrush’ generation
  • increased confidence to migrate dye to decreased intervening obstacles
  • e.g. ability to speak English would lead to more social interactions and less concern about assimilation
  • increased migration to the former imperial core
104
Q

How has colonialism impacted migration patterns?
(migration from former colonies to imperial core today)

A
  • high levels of migration from former colony to the imperial core is still evident today
  • through colonialism students in schools were taught the same curriculum using the same textbooks as the ‘imperial core’
  • This is evidenced through doctor training in India until 1975 doctors trained in India were treated on par with those who qualified in the UK. No need for additional (PLAB) exams to practice in the UK
  • decreased intervening obstacles and Indian doctors invited to UK in 30s/40s due to shortages
  • increased migration from former colony to imperial core
  • still evidenced today- 20,000+ Indian doctors are registered to work in UK- about 9% of all UK doctors
105
Q

Define cultural heterogeneity

A

a society where there’s a high level of cultural or ethnic diversity among its citizens, often resulting in a multi-lingual and multifaith community

105
Q

Give examples of cultural heterogeneity

A
  • Notting hill carnival in London
  • The curry mile in Manchester
  • Diwali celebrations in Leicester
  • Ska music (Caribbean/British rock)
  • Indian doctors in the UK
106
Q

How can ex-colonial migration contribute to cultural heterogenity?

A
  • migration in the past (Windrush)
  • migration currently (Indian doctors)
107
Q

What are the benefits of tax havens?

A
  • High earning individuals- purchasing power
  • residents of tax havens- job creation
  • large businesses- profits
108
Q

How do high income earners benefit from tax havens?

A
  • reduced tax liabilities in terms of income tax (Lewis Hamilton) and inheritance tax (use of trusts)
  • more disposable income and increased purchasing power
  • more reinvestment into assets which increase long term wealth further
  • trickle down theory, demand for goods and services increases and incomes of everyone in supply chain
109
Q

How do residents of tax havens benefit?

A
  • job creation in related sectors- finance, legal, admin
  • British virgin islands- holds 5000 times its worth in investments
  • increased employment, increased income
  • multiplier effect
110
Q

How do large businesses benefit from tax havens?

A
  • use tax haven by locating there or transfer pricing
  • increased retained profits
  • reinvest in research and development
  • increased quality of products through more innovation
  • increased demand, increased supply and more profits
  • increased production due to greater efficiency
  • lower costs of production
  • increased profits- sent to tax haven
111
Q

What are the negatives of tax havens?

A
  • government of non-tax haven- capital flight
  • small businesses- outcompeted by TNCs
  • environment- mineral extraction
112
Q

How do governments of non-tax havens experience negative impacts?

A
  • suffer from high levels of capital flight- TNCs run profits through ta havens to increase profits
  • $89 billion per year is lost from Africa. Kenya= 30% corporation tax
  • decreased government revenue through corporation tax- collectively cost governments $500-600 billion a year in lost corporation tax and $200 billion income tax
  • decreased budgets available to promote socio-economic development
  • schooling- 5-6 years average schooling
  • requires loans- World Bank. Interest payments and SAPs- TNC investment
  • maintains state of underdevelopment and dependency
113
Q

Why do small businesses experience negative impacts of tax havens?

A
  • are out competed by larger firms
  • don’t have the revenues required to invest in tax havens
  • pay more in corporation tax- limiting ability to reinvest
  • economies are therefore more prone to monopolies
  • companies then have power over governments sing money to lobby
  • particularly if involved in extractive industries
114
Q

Why does the environment experience negative impacts of tax havens?

A
  • the need to repay development loans and SAPs- open door policy adopted
  • In African nations- resource curse
  • Extractive industry TNCs can invest- increased exploitation of resources
  • deforestation and degradation of environment
  • decreased biodiversity
115
Q

Why may a firm not locate to a tax haven?

A
  • smaller populations so smaller consumer market
  • reputational damage
  • require highly skilled work force
  • use transfer pricing
116
Q

Explain why a company wouldn’t locate to a tax haven? (small population)

A
  • if the firm is a manufacturing company
  • tax havens normally have smaller populations e.g. British virgin Islands population of 31,000
  • smaller domestic market
  • would involve increased transportation costs which would decrease profits
117
Q

Explain why a firm wouldn’t locate to a tax haven? (as they use transfer pricing)

A
  • if a firm uses transfer pricing
  • no need to relocate
  • parent company sets up subsidiary companies in other locations
  • one company in high tax- sells to other subsidiary for low cost to decrease profits
  • other company in low tax sells back to other subsidiary for high cost. less tax paid on profits
118
Q

Explain why a firm wouldn’t relocate to a tax haven? (reputational damage)

A
  • if firm is worried about reputational damage which may decrease sales
  • Starbucks 2011- £0 in corporation tax on £380 million in sales in UK
  • led to protests outside the outlets in big cities led by UK uncut- NGO
  • leaflets containing images of asylum seekers from wat torn countries highlighting how tax avoidance leads to austerity and negative socio-economic impacts
119
Q

Explain why a firm wouldn’t locate to a tax haven? (require high skilled workforce)

A
  • if firm requires high skilled workforce in high tax country
  • UK- corporation tax increase to 25% in April 2023 but average years of school are 17
  • better qualified and more productive
  • less training costs as workers have more transferable skills
120
Q

What are the attitudes of key players in relation to tax avoidance by TNCs?

A
  • OECD (IGO) has maintained a black list of countries operations tax havens. This has led to some TNCs becoming more aware of brand risk associated
  • World Economic forum (IGO) advocates a 25% global corporation tax
  • War on Want, Oxfam and UK Uncut (NGO) have campaigned against tax havens and TNCs that use them. This becomes public relations challenge and results in profit loss
121
Q

Give example of non tax haven

A

UK- higher rate= 40% income tax
Additional rate= 45% income tax
Corporation tax= increased from 19% to 25% in April 2023

122
Q

Give an example of a tax haven

A

UAE= 0% income tax
Ireland= 12.5% corporation tax

123
Q

Why has globalisation led to the growth of tax havens?

A
  1. Developments in communications
  2. Developments in transport
  3. Global shift of services and manufacturing
  4. Globalisation of culture
124
Q

Explain why developments in communications has led to growth of tax havens

A
  • developments in communications
  • fibre optic sea floor cables
  • data transferred at speed of light
  • increased flow of capital across borders
  • increased speed and volume of transfers to tax havens
  • increased requirement for firms in financial services and support services such as legal firms
125
Q

Explain why developments in transport has led to growth of tax havens

A
  • developments in transport
  • jet aircraft have led to shrinking world overcoming friction of distance
  • more of world is accessible to more people- even less accessible places such as Cayman Islands (tax haven)
  • easier for people to migrate to tax havens and grow domestic firms
  • increasing populations and their incomes. positive multiplier effect
126
Q

Explain why global shift of services and manufacturing has led to the growth of tax havens

A
  • global shift of services and manufacturing
  • increased profits of TNCs
  • TNCs want to hold onto as much of that money as possible
  • run profits through tax havens to avoid paying too much tax
  • the more profits increase the more tax havens will grow
127
Q

Explain why globalisation of culture has led to the growth of tax havens

A
  • globalisation of culture
  • spread of the western ideology of capitalism
  • facilitates growth of system in which tax havens can grow
  • rates of tax are a competitive advantage when trying to encourage FDI
  • Ireland- 12.5% corporation tax. Starbucks have located there
128
Q

Which theory can you use for showing income inequality?

A
  • GINI coefficient
  • Lorenz curve
129
Q

Describe the GINI coefficient

A

closer to 0= more equal distribution of wealth
South Africa has a coefficient of 63 (one of highest)
Norway has a coefficient of 22.7 in 2019

130
Q

Describe the Lorenz curve

A

shows distribution of income not the actual income i.e. wouldn’t show which country was richer overall
line is drawn showing where country is currently operating and is compared to a line of perfect equality (through the origin)

131
Q

What is the ‘rich get richer’ agruement?

A
  • with economic growth there’s an increased demand for resources
  • increases income for resource owners at faster rate than general workers and may use tax avoidance via tax havens/transfer pricing
  • to keep even more profit
  • lowers taxable income and less redistribution of income by government
132
Q

Examples of income inequality

A
  • Since 2020, the richest 1% have captured almost 2/3 of any new wealth, nearly twice as much money as the bottom 99% of worlds population
  • Food and energy companies more than doubled their projects in 2022, payed out $257 billion to wealthy shareholders, while over 800 million people went to bed hungry
  • A tax of up to 5% on the worlds multi-millionaires and billionaires could raise $1.7 trillion a year, enough to lift 2 billion people out of poverty and fund a global plan to end hunger
133
Q

What are the consequences of increasing inequaity?

A
  1. Unequal access to education- reinforces inequality and reduces social mobility/ intergenerational cycle of poverty
  2. Chronic disease= heart disease and diabetes- poor diets and ‘food desert’- limiting working potential decreasing income
  3. Poor healthcare= treatable illnesses left untreated limiting working potential decreasing income/productivity
  4. Developing= youthful populations, lack of access to jobs- increases social and political unrest (riots/rallys)
134
Q

Name the alternative economic models

A
  • High tax model (more government intervention)
  • Community rather than individual ownership (Buen Vivir)
  • Economic democracy (Partnerships)
135
Q

Explain how the high tax model reduces inequality

A
  • increased government intervention and redistribution of wealth
  • e.g. Sweden, which is known for high taxes than many other European countries- majority pay between 49-60% of income through local government and state income tax
  • this decreases the retained income of the most wealthy
  • increases budget available for government able to invest in social/public services
  • e.g. all children have free school meals throughout education#
  • proven to increase concentration and increase educational attainment
  • increased earning potential and lower future income inequality
  • Nursery fees heavily subsided by government e.g. average nursery full time cost UK around £1,500 per month compare to £100 per month in Sweden
  • lowers inequality as parents have more earning potential as they are more willing/able to get back to work
136
Q

Explain how Buen Vivir reduces inequality

A
  • practicing community rather than prioritizing the individual
  • Buen Vivir in Bolivia and Equador (state and government objective)
  • includes reflective pricing e.g. external costs of production such as environmental damage included in prices, this should increase prices and decrease consumption and small scale production
  • increased local production (local sourcing) decreasing food miles and environmental impact ad increasing social responsibility for business owners as part of the community
137
Q

Explain how economic democracy reduces inequality

A
  • workers control enterprises democratically through labour trusts and sharing corporate profits
  • e.g. Cooperative group and John Lewis partnership
  • Employees given shares in the company and will get dividends if company does well and can be involved in decision making process e.g. voting powers
  • reduces idea of owner of TNC being the only person to see increased profits when company does well, decreasing inequality on a small scale
138
Q

Describe some other methods of reducing income inequality

A
  • promoting women’s rights and equality (14% gender pay gap in UK 2023)
  • Limit executive pay (Bankers bonus pay cap EU/UK 2014- removed in 2023) and pay workers a living wage (employers can sign up to scheme)
  • reduce tax burden for most people and increase it for the rich
  • universal basic income (Iran reduced GINI from 0.38 to 0.36 in first 2 years)

Geography (14 decks)

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