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Geography > Migration, Identity and Sovereignty EQ3 > Flashcards

Migration, Identity and Sovereignty EQ3 Flashcards

1
Q

When was the UN created and how many states were there to start with?

A

October 1945 with 51 member states

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2
Q

How many nations are part of the UN currently?

A

193 member states (all countries except Holy See and State of Palestine)

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3
Q

Why does the increasing membership of the UN matter?

A
  • It matters because it shows the UN has grown in importance as growth of members decisions/votes hold more sway as representative of a larger collective
  • wider range of countries to be involved in negations/problem solving = more opinions and perspective which could increase success
  • e.g. UN GA vote to condemn Russia’s actions in Ukraine all voted in favour except 5 no votes and 35 abstentions
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4
Q

What are the main purposes of the UN?

A
  • prevent war
  • protect fundamental human rights
  • maintain international law and promote social progress
    • current sustainability goals agenda
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5
Q

How are decisions made/split in the UN?

A

Member countries all get an equal right to decide the UN constitution (1 vote per country)

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6
Q

Who set up the UN?

A

It was set up predominantly by white male North Americans and Europeans, as a result, Africa, Asia and South America have always been underrepresented at the UN. Women have also been underrepresented (no female UN Secretary ever)

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7
Q

Why does the lack of representation of minorities matter in the UN?

A

Many of the UNs organisations aim to help poor people but these people/countries often lack a voice at the UN so have less input into decision making

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8
Q

Describe the key players in the UN and their different visions about the UNs purpose

A
  • Equality and social progress; The vision of Europeans is the ideal of ‘European liberal democracy’ and European welfare state to help people
  • Promote trade and create wealth; The USAs vision is a stable world economic order, benefiting trade and TNCs, idea that capitalism is good and those against it should be converted
  • Prevent conflict; China and Russia’s vision is that the UN doesn’t interfere with their country in terms of democracy and human rights, instead the UN allows powerful countries to talk to each other
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9
Q

Name some environmental, socio-economic and Political organisations that are part of the UN

A

Environmental= IPCC, UNFCCC
Socio-economic= WHO, UNESCO, WB, IMF
Political= UNSC, UNGA

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10
Q

Why does it matter that the UN has many organisations?

A

It matters because it shows growth in importance over time due to the growth of range of branches in environmental, socio-economic and political spheres- wider range of areas to make progress on and larger scale of operations

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11
Q

Who makes the biggest contribution to the UN?

A

The USA pays 22% of the UNs annual budget
EU member states a further 24%

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12
Q

Why does it matter who makes the biggest contribution to the UN?

A

This gives countries (western capitalist democracies) a very large say in the direction and purpose of the UN (perpetuating western power/superpower status)

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13
Q

What is the aim of the UNSC?

A

to maintain international peace and security

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14
Q

Who are the 5 permanent members of the UNSC?
Name some current non-permanent states

A

5 permanent states= China, France, UK, USA, Russia
10 non-permanent states= Albania, Brazil, Ecuador, Gabon, Ghana, Japan, Malta, Switzerland, UAE, Mozambique

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15
Q

What is different to permanent members than non-permanent members?

A
  • Permanent members have a veto power (allows them to block the adoption of a resolution)
  • Has affected global governance; Russia’s veto on the UNSC resolution that denounced the invasion of Ukraine February 25th 2023
  • Feb 2011- US vetoed resolution condemning Israeli settlements in West Bank
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16
Q

Why does permanent states having a veto matter?

A

The UNs role in global governance effected by different geopolitical visions often little/nothing done due to conflicting views and opinions based on different history/alliances/political views

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17
Q

Name the 2 main ways the UN can intervene?

A
  1. Economic sanctions- trade barriers, trade embargos, restrictions on financial transactions of TNCs
  2. Direct military intervention- the use of UN peacekeepers to protect civilians or use of force to try and end the conflict

(hard power)

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18
Q

What is the case study for UNs use of economic sanctions?

A

Iran

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19
Q

What is the case study for UNs use of military intervention?

A

Democratic Republic of Congo

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20
Q

Iran case study- use of santions

A
  • 2006; security council passed a resolution demanding that Iran ‘suspend all uranium enrichment related and reprocessing activities’ (believed they were making a nuclear weapon)
  • then imposed sanctions banning supply of nuclear related materials and technology related to programme
  • Iran didn’t respond accordingly, so sanctions extended to 2010 including arms embargo and travel ban
  • 2015 as a result Iran agreed to suspend enrichment activity so UN set out schedule to lift sanctions with provisions to reimpose if necessary
  • May 2018, Donald Trump abandoned the deal and in November that year he reinstated sanctions targeting Iran and states trading with it
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21
Q

How was the UNs intervention by economic sanctions successful in Iran?

A
  • Additional sanctions led to a downturn in Iran’s economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows and quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors and triggering protests
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22
Q

How was the UNs intervention by economic sanctions unsuccessful in Iran?

A
  • As a result, Iran has increased its uranium production an there has been increased tensions in the region which were escalated in July 2019 when Iran announced the capture of one British flagged oil tanker in the narrow Strait of Hormuz
  • Feb 2023- News stories emerge of inspectors finding evidence of uranium enrichment to the quality needed to make a nuclear bomb, the UK continues to have restrictions on Iran
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23
Q

DRC case study- use of military

A
  • gained independence from Belgium in 1960
  • changes in leaders over many years- One rebel leader control control in 1997 called Kabila
  • 1999 DRC turned on Kabila, troops from neighboring countries assisted Kabila, resulting in a 6 nation war
  • UN peacekeepers from 49 countries were deployed to the DRC
  • 2023- still over 18000 UN personnel in DRC authorized to use any means to protect civilians and to support government of DRC in its stabilization
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24
Q

How was the UNs intervention by military action successful in DRC?

A
  • The situation may have been worse without UN involvement
  • The UN may have prevented wider, direct involvement by other countries e.g. an African world war
  • the UN collected evidence that may lead to war crimes trials
  • Humanitarian help and air have been provided by the UN, protected by peacekeepers
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25
Q

How was the UNs intervention by military action unsuccessful in DRC?

A
  • Despite 20 years of UN action the war continued in certain areas of DRC until 2021
  • DRC is more dependent than ever on war-lord controlled conflict materials
  • Over 5 million have been killed plus 206 UN peacekeepers
  • Income in DRC is about 450 USD pc per year
  • War crimes involving chid soldiers and sexual violence have been widespread
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26
Q

What is the case study for the inaction of the UN?

A

Rwandan genocide

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27
Q

Rwanda case study

A
  • There was potential for intervene because there was continued conflict between Hutu majority and Tutsi minority
  • However, inaction occurred due to previous failed UN intervention in Somalia in which US troops were killed, leading to a lack of desire from the US to allocate troops
  • Prior to genocide, UN sent small number of peacekeepers to Rwanda to observe ceasefire between Hutus and Tutsis- but without authority to use weapons to maintain peace
  • The UN didn’t act significantly and withdrew troops after Belgian peacekeepers were killed allowing the genocide (death of 800,000) to occur
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28
Q

Why does inaction occur at the UN?

A
  • Previous loss of life can create a decreased desire to intervene and to deploy troops e.g. loss of life in Syria and Iraq means UK and USA don’t want to deploy
  • Resolutions can be blocked by veto’s due to conflicting views, shows how UNSC facilitates inaction
    e.g. Crimea where Russia vetoed intervention. could be a contributing factor to Ukraine/Russia conflict
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29
Q

Why might UN direct military intervention be less effective?

A
  • Peacekeepers allocated/supplied by developing nations are less successful than those provided by developed nations e.g. The UK/USA as troops will be better trained and better resourced due to increased expenditure
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30
Q

What are the characteristics of capitalism?

A
  1. Free trade- removing barriers/ protectionism
  2. Promotion of privatisation
  3. Decreased government intervention ‘red tape’
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31
Q

What is the aim of the WTO?

A

to facilitate free trade i.e. the removal of trade barriers

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32
Q

How does the WTO achieve its aim?

A

provides a platform for trade negotiations via ‘trade rounds’, the last of which was the Doha round 2001 negotiations, including on agriculture, services and intellectual property particularly to support developing countries- lasted 14 years

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33
Q

What influence does the WTO have on globalisation?

A

removal of trade barriers increases the flow of goods and services

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34
Q

How does the WTO perpetuate western capitalism?

A
  • decreased trade barriers
  • increased neoliberal capitalism as desired by WTO as it should increase global economic efficiency as inefficient firms are no longer subsidised so more efficient use of global resources
  • e.g. system of capitalism private ownership/ ability to accumulate wealth growing
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35
Q

How does the WTO maintain existing patterns of power?

A
  • free trade benefits developed countries more than developing countries
  • developing countries need some trade protection in order to diversify their economies and develop new industries, ‘infant industry argument’
  • many developed economies used a degree of tariff protection in their development phase
  • unfair if others aren’t allowed to do the same
  • Rostow’s modernisation theory- Periphery aren’t able to develop so stay developing and developed stay as superpowers
36
Q

What are some issues with the WTO?

A
  • Countries should trade without discrimination= local firm isn’t allowed to favour local contractors, gives an unfair advantage to TNCs, damage local firms/right of developing economies to favour their own emerging industries
  • Failure to reduce tariffs on agriculture in developed nations= free trade isnt sought after in any sectors. Both US and EU retain high tariffs on agriculture (lots of less developed nations would use this as an export), this hurts farmers in developing countries who face tariff protection
  • Free trade ignores the environment e.g. imports from countries with least environmental protection. Many criticise WTOs philosophy that the most important economic objective is increasing GDP
  • slow progress, trade rounds have been notoriously difficult and slow to reach an agreement
37
Q

What is the aim of the IMF?

A

focus in on promoting global economic stability (aim to avoid economic shocks/recessions)

38
Q

How does the IMF achieve its aim?

A

concessionary rate loan (low interest) for nations in financial difficulty and provide advice and guidance to governments on economic policy

39
Q

What influence does the IMF have on globalisation?

A

privatisation increases the flow of capital e.g. through loan and repayments or FDI if purchased by TNC and flow of people if use existing staff e.g. managerial positions

40
Q

How does the IMF perpetuate western capitalism and maintain existing patterns of power?

A
  • IMF loans have conditions attached that promote neoliberal capitalism (SAPs) including privatisation (e.g. In Tanzania of water and electricity companies), free trade and austerity
  • decreased government spending and increased taxes mean less need for future bail out
41
Q

What are the problems with the IMF?

A
  • The main issue is the SAPs reducing the quality of public services due to lack of spending
  • Education decreases so less highly skilled workers with lower wages
  • Less taxes and spending causing the spiral of decline
42
Q

What does HIPC stand for?

A

Heavily indebted poor countries initiative

43
Q

What is the aim of the HIPC?

A

to bring debts down to manageable levels for some of the worlds poorest countries who will be unable to pay these by conventional means

44
Q

How does the HIPC achieve its aim?

A

Low cost loans (low interest) to repay existing debts with higher interest rate (lower interest rates make the new debt more manageable than the old) or write off part of the debt

45
Q

How does the HIPC inititative positively effect the developing country?

A

Increase in funds for government spending and development e.g. Uganda= $1.9 billion qualify for HIPC initiative, debt written down following which Uganda now spends 70% more on healthcare and 40% more on education. Increase in HDI so higher development levels

46
Q

What is a possible evaluation of the HIPC inititive?

A

Possible moral hazard
- unintended consequences of debt write offs is that the developing country isn’t forced to live with the full consequences of its actions.
- In fact, they may chose to take out similar loans again and misallocate those funds due to patronage or corruption, in the belief that should they run into financial difficulties they will receive a further bailout/ debt write off
- The consequences of HIPC write off would be to simply delay the problem and may require future bailout

47
Q

What is the aim of the World Bank?

A

to promote development and reduce poverty, with the focus being on some of the worlds least developed nations

48
Q

How does the WB achieve their aim?

A

provides financial support in the form of grants and loans to provide the funds for investment into development policies e.g. education, healthcare and increasing HDI

49
Q

How are decisions made in the WB?

A
  • the number of votes on what financial support should be given linked to the share of capital stock of the bank held by that country i.e. pay more into the WB get more say in decision making
  • High income countries hold over 60% of voting power
  • Low income countries hold around 6% despite having other 80% of the worlds population and being the most impacted by the WB
50
Q

What influence does the WB have on globalisation?

A
  • Increased flow of capital from loan ST
  • LT increased flow of goods and services as country develops through more exports of goods and services and increased imports of goods and services as incomes rise and to use in production
51
Q

How does the WB perpetuate western capitalism?

A

SAPs attached to the loans often include privatization and opening borders to FDI that promotes capitalism
However, China has been increasing its voting rights in WB over time so more votes. Communist society

52
Q

How does the WB maintain existing patters of power?

A

Voting system reinforces power in favour of the traditionally rich developed countries

53
Q

What an evaluation for the use of the WB?

A

China is increasing its voting rights in WB over time with higher levels of development China has the ability to contribute more=more votes.
Set up of new development bank for the BRICS as an alternative to WB. China changing the position= more Asian based IGOs and more voting rights and more capacity to give loans and FDI

54
Q

Case study for negative impacts of SAPs/loan from WB- Water privatization in Tanzania

A
  • the WB attached SAPs to their debt relief in 2007, making the privatization of [arts of Tanzania’s water supply a condition
  • City water (UK company) purchased the water system. #water prices rose, yet there had been no improvement in supply, reliability or quality
  • Tanzania decided to cancel City Water’s contract resulting in legal processes
55
Q

Case study for positive impacts of WB- Philippines 2014

A
  • In 2014 ‘Philippines Rural Development project’ loan to support infrastructure
  • aimed to increase rural incomes and decrease poverty; directly benefit 2 million farmers and fishers almost 50% of whom are women (decreasing gender inequality)
  • project achieved a 5% increase in annual household incomes and 7% increase in products sold at market
  • as agriculture contributes 10% to GDP of the Philippines this can be considered successful both internally and externally with increasing export value seen by 2018
56
Q

Case study for negative impacts of SAP/loan from IMF- Jamaican SAPs

A
  • in the past Jamaica had taken loans to fund government policies e.g. education and healthcare. Oil crisis (70s) meant Jamaica struggled to repay so went to IMF for bail out loan
  • IMF attached SAPs of austerity lead to;
    decrease spending in healthcare- 60% decrease in registered nurses and increase in infant mortality
    decrease in primary education achievement- 97% in 1990 to 73% in 2013
    decreased education and quality of healthcare so decreased economic growth and decreased development (HDI)
  • today spend more on servicing debt than on education and healthcare combined
57
Q

Case study for positive impacts of IMF loan- Ghana stabilisation

A
  • 2015, Ghana’s economy reliance on commodities funded spending on short term high interest loans
  • IMF granted Ghana $918 million loan to help stabilize the economy and assist in paying off debts
  • programme designed to cut spending 2017- public spending cut 17% per person
  • seen as successful a FDI projects increased into Ghana’s so SAPs made it more attractive to investors leading to higher incomes and better job opportunities
58
Q

Give examples of some trade blocs

A

EU
USMCA
ASEAN

59
Q

Describe the EU

A
  • common market- free trade between members and a common external tariff placed on imports from non-members
  • 27 member countries
60
Q

Describe USMCA

A
  • replaced NAFTA
  • free trade agreement
61
Q

Describe ASEAN

A
  • one of the fastest growing trad blocs
  • political and economic union
  • 10 members in SE Asia
  • aim= accelerate economic growth and through that social progress and cultural development. to promote regional peace and stability
62
Q

What are the benefits of Bretton woods for developed countries?

A

WTO;
- Allows access to new markets, growth of capitalist western TNCs
e.g. McDonalds both throughout the developed and developing world increasing their profitability of these companies and their shareholders in Europe and USA

IMF/WB;
- SAPs lead to privatization and free trade allowing TNCs access to foreign markets without tariffs and quotas.
Privatization allows for inorganic growth abroad where western TNCs are able to purchase foreign companies
- Developed nations have also turned to IMF for bail out loans in the past e.g. Greece
- Developed countries may receive interest on loans to developing nations

63
Q

What are the benefits of Bretton woods for developing countries?

A

WTO;
- Benefits of free trade with increased access to foreign markets without taxes or quotas (trade liberalization). Due to decreased labour costs, are often likely to be more competitive therefore would want to gain access to markets like the EU/USA with 500 million ad 30 million of the worlds richest consumers
leading to export led growth increasing living standards and development increasing HDI

IMF/WB;
- World bank provides low cost loans to facilitate development and funds for education, health, infrastructure and increased productivity of workforce as more skilled and less absent from work and increased economic growth and increased HDI (moderisation theory- pre-conditions for take off)

64
Q

What is a LE for the benefits developing countries get from WB?

A
  • Big criticism of the WTO s that decreased barriers have disproportionately favored developed nations
  • trade round negotiations have often resulted in larger reductions in trade barriers from developing countries due to size and wealth of economic markets in developed nations (i.e. EU 500 million wealthy consumers) consolidated by trade blocs like EU where multiple countries negotiate as one
  • increased negotiating power so it can be argued the developing nations have the least negotiating power and are forced to lower their trade barriers rather than the developing country benefitting from removal of barriers in the developed
65
Q

What are the problems of Bretton woods for developing countries?

A

WTO;
- Decreased barriers & regulations= decreased standard and quality of products for consumers
- If foreign competition is more compeitive it may outcompete local firms (fewer economies of scale than western TNCs)
pushing them out of the market so long term reliance on imports increases (likely to be more competitive as only non-efficient industries need more protection)- protectionism is needed

IMF/WB;
- loans come with SAPs which are often put forward by the developed country (as they have more voting rights) e.g. Austerity, privatization or free trade
- Privatization= private firms are profit driven given the increased costs associated with many industries that wee previously pubic owned (e.g. Tanzania water) likely to lead to increased prices, decreased living standards. Once privatized these companies are open to purchase from foreign TNCs so any profits will be repatriated to foreign shareholders- leakage f wealth so less economic growth

66
Q

What environemtal IGOs focus on the atmosphere and biosphere?

A
  • The Montreal protocol
  • Convention on International trade in Endangered species (CITES)
67
Q

What is the aim of the Montreal protocol?

A

to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of substances that are responsible for its depletion e.g. CFCs

68
Q

Why was the Montreal protocol successful?

A
  • Negotiation was held in small, informal groups
  • People negotiating included scientists
  • Developing countries were given longer to phase out ODS
  • The multilateral fund provided incremental funding for developing countries t help them meet their compliance targets
  • All 142 developing countries were able to meet 100% phase out for CFCs and other ODS in 2010
69
Q

What is the aim of CITES?

A

protect endangered plants and animals by banning the trade of threatened species and their products. Applies to more than 35,000 species. It has 183 members

70
Q

Why was CITES successful?

A
  • raised awareness of high profile threatened species e.g. Snow Leopard
  • reduced ivory trade and halted decline of African Elephants up to 2005
  • membership is almost universal
71
Q

What are the criticisms of CITES?

A
  • species not ecosystems protected so issues such as deforestation still occur
  • countries implement their laws themselves and put in place their own monitoring and policing so this will vary from country to country
  • Species have to be under threat to be put on list by which point the problem may be too serious to solve, seen as reactive not preventive
  • Economic interests get in the way e.g. pressure on commercial fishing of blue fin tuna
72
Q

Which environmental IGOs focus on the hydrosphere?

A
  • UN convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS) 1994
  • Water convention (Helsinki) 1992
  • Millennium Ecosystem assessment 2001
73
Q

What is the aim of UNCLOS?

A

define the boundaries of costal zones where countries have exclusive rights to the marine and mineral resources
These areas extend 200 miles into the ocean and are called EEZs (exclusive economic zones)
Landlocked states also have a general right of access to the sea without taxation of traffic passing through other states
90% of all trade between countries happens y container ship which must follow UNCLOS rules

74
Q

Why is UNCLOS successful?

A
  • the retirement of single-hulled oil containers which are easier to sink
  • made it illegal to clean out oil tankers with seawater, reducing water pollution
75
Q

What are the criticisms of UNCLOS?

A
  • enforcement is difficult
  • Countries like Japan and Norway ignore ban on commercial whaling, claiming its for ‘scientific reasons’
76
Q

What is the aim of Helsinki?

A

guidelines on the use of rivers and groundwater that cross national borders

77
Q

Why is Helsinki successful?

A
  • prior to Helsinki rules, the assumption of many states was that they owned the water that was their territory (absolute territorial sovereignty) the main principle established is the idea of ‘equitable share’
78
Q

What are the criticisms of Helsinki rules?

A
  • There’s no mechanism in place to enforce the rules if a country breaks them
79
Q

What is the aim of the Millennium Ecosystem assessment?

A
  • assess how changes in ecosystems affect human well-being and to preserve and protect them
80
Q

How has the Millennium Ecosystem assessment been successful?

A
  • It popularized the term ‘ecosystem services’ which puts a financial value on the threatened ecosystems strengthening call for their protection.
  • As example of ecosystem assessed by MEA is the Great Barrier reef
  • Increases awareness
81
Q

Which environmental IGOs focus on the Antarctic?

A
  • Antarctic treaty system
82
Q

What is the aim of the Antarctic treaty system?

A
  • sets aside Antarctic as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity in the continent
83
Q

Why is the Antarctic treaty system successful?

A
  • 53 parties
  • first arms control agreement during the Cold war
  • few places on Earth were there’s never been war, environment is fully protected and where scientific research has priority
84
Q

What is the criticism of the Antarctic treaty system?

A
  • thought there is a wealth of natural resources below the ice which could lead to conflict in the future
  • possible the ice will melt opening the continent to more pressure to allow mining for other minerals
85
Q

Give an example of a UNSC resolution

A

UNSC approved a resolution for passage of humanitarian aid into Gaza after Isreals attacks

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