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VBMS 324 > module 4: monogastric GI > Flashcards

module 4: monogastric GI Flashcards

1
Q

3 reasons why we need a gut?

A

1) obtain essential molecules
2) too large for simple diffusion
3) breakdown large molecules into usable units

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2
Q

how do starch, protein, & fats get broken down?

A

starch -> glucose
protein -> amino acids
fat -> free fatty acids

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3
Q

what are the 5 basic processes for GI tract?

A

1) motility
2) secretion
3) digestion
4) absorption
5) excretion

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4
Q

oral vs aboral direction

A

oral - towards the mouth
aboral- towards the anus

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5
Q

foregut, midgut & hindgut

A

foregut- esophagus & crop
midgut- glandular stomach
hindgut- cecum & colon

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6
Q

hind gut fermenters & examples

A

fermentation of cellulose happens after the stomach

horses, rodents, rabbits

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7
Q

foregut fermenters & examples

A

fermentation before glandular stomach

kangaroo, pig, dog

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8
Q

what form of starch is the only source of carbs a true carnivore has?

A

glycogen

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9
Q

marsupials

A

have fore stomach where fermentation occurs - kangaroo

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10
Q

where does most digestion occur in hindgut fermenters?

A

colon

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11
Q

cecetropes

A

contains E & K vitamins

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12
Q

4 functions of motility

A

1) mixing
2) mechanical digestion
3) absorption
4) movement

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13
Q

motility

A

coordinated smooth muscle contractions

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14
Q

enteric nervous system

A

contracts independently of CNS but can be modulated by CNS

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15
Q

2 types of mixing movements

A

1) propulsive
2) mixing

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16
Q

peristalsis vs segmentation

A

P- esophagus & stomach, sweeping motion

S- intestines, oscillating rings, chop the bolus

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17
Q

1st vs 2nd plexus

A

1st- submucosal
2nd- myenteric

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18
Q

plexus

A

net of nerve cells

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19
Q

cells of cajal

A

like pacemaker cells in the heart, self excitable, slow wave that goes up and down, when wave crosses threshold it causes an action potential & leads to muscle contraction

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20
Q

syncytium

A

gap junctions that allow action potentials to move throughout smooth muscle & contract as a unit

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21
Q

extrinsic vs intrinsic-reflex length

A

extrinsic- SNS & PNS nerves, innervation from outside of tract, long reflex
intrinsic- functions independently from CNS, short reflex

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22
Q

T or F: smooth muscle does not fatigue like skeletal muscle can

A

T

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23
Q

more calcium benefit

A

more cross bridges = stronger contractions

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24
Q

smooth vs skeletal muscle cross bridge

A

smooth- calmodulin instead of troponin/tropomyosin

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25
Q

tone

A

constant low level of contraction

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26
Q

megaesophagus

A

filled with food & distended - occurs when there is no tone to bring back after distension

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27
Q

megaesophagus treatment

A

keep upright during & after eating

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28
Q

what allows distension?

A

relaxation

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29
Q

function of secretions

A

moisten food, lubricate tract, adjust pH

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30
Q

digestion

A

breakdown of ingested material into molecules that can be absorbed

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31
Q

2 types of digestion

A

mechanical- chewing & mixing
chemical- enzymes & acid

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32
Q

why would you want to increase surface area of food?

A

allow enzymes to access substrate to increase enzyme activity

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33
Q

carb digestion

A

1) polysaccharides are 1st broken down by salivary & pancreatic amylase
2) disacchardies are broken into lactose, maltose and sucrose
3) brush border enzymes further break down into lactase, maltase & sucrase
4) lactase -> galactose & glucose, malatase -> 2 glucose units, sucrase -> glucose & fructose

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34
Q

digestion of protein

A

1) pepsin & pancreatic proteolytic enzymes break into small peptides
2) brush border enzymes break down further into individual amino acids

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35
Q

fat digestion

A

1) bile emulsifies lipid droplets into smaller droplets
2) droplets are acted on by pancreatic lipase
3) triglycerides are broken into 1 monosaccharide & 2 free fatty acids
4) micelles are formed & can be absorbed by brush border

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36
Q

nucleic acid digeston

A

DNA & RNA- broken into nucleotides
nucleases- broken into DNase & RNase

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37
Q

major site of absorption

A

small intestine

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38
Q

microvilli function

A

finger like projections that increase surface area to facilitate absorption

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39
Q

passive diffusion & example

A

down concentration gradient, water diffuses directly through a membrane

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40
Q

passive transport & example

A

down concentration gradient, needs channel or carrier but no energy, glucose transport via GLUT-2

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41
Q

active transport & example

A

against concentration gradient, Na/K ATPase pump

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42
Q

portal drained viscera

A

portal vein collects blood draining from GI tract & goes directly to the liver

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43
Q

2 reasons why blood goes directly to the liver

A

processing of nutrients & detoxification

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44
Q

4 main layers of the GI tract

A

1) mucosa- inner most layer
2) submucosa- 2nd inner layer
3) muscularis externa- inner circular muscle & outer longitudinal muscle
4) serosa- outer layer, keeps everything together, lubrication

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45
Q

mesentary

A

connective tissue that holds everything peritonuem

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46
Q

peritonuem

A

outer wall that holds everything in place but still allows it to move

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47
Q

lamina propia

A

layer of connective tissue that contain smallest blood vessels

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48
Q

lamina muscularis

A

very thin layer of smooth muscle that helps to modulate & control folds

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49
Q

3 sublayers of mucosa

A

epithelium, lamina propia, lamina muscularis

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50
Q

myenteric nerve plexus

A

found in muscularis externa layer, connects with submucosa nerve plexus, and acts as mini brain within the gut

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51
Q

purpose of serous fluid & what layer secretes it?

A

lubrication to avoid friction, serosa

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52
Q

mesentry

A

allows movement but holds it in relative space

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53
Q

cells of cajal vs pacemaker cells

A

cajal- does not always generate an action potenial

pacemaker- always generates an action potential

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54
Q

afferent neurons

A

afferent- sense the input

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55
Q

types of afferent neurons

A

mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors & osmoreceptors

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56
Q

efferent neurons

A

cause effect- synapse with smooth muscle

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57
Q

endocrine vs exocrine vs paracrine

A

endo- releases hormones into bloodstream
exo- secretes enzymes, muscus & ions into lumen (outside body)
para- secreting into local environment, not bloodstream

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58
Q

interneurons

A

inhibit or stimulate efferent neurons, act locally & rapidly

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59
Q

stimulatory vs inhibitory effect

A

S: chewing stimulates stomach & liver to start secretions for digestion
I: ileus = total inhibition of GI tract

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60
Q

SNS vs PNS digestion

A

SNS- inhibits digestion
PNS- stimulates digestion

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61
Q

SNS vs PNS extrinsic neural regulation (nerve, NT, receptors, inhibit/stimulate stuff)

A

SNS- splanchnic nerve, NE, A1 receptors, inhibits
PNS- vagus nerve, Ach, muscarinic receptors, stimulates

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62
Q

GI hormones coordinates activity over a (long/short) period of time

A

longer

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63
Q

gastro-ileal reflex

A

stomach detects incoming food & stimulates motility & movement into colon/rectum

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64
Q

enter-gastric reflex

A

inhibits motility if stomach/small intestine is full

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65
Q

dentition

A

number & type of teeth

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66
Q

incisors

A

front teeth, used for grasping & cutting

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67
Q

canines

A

eye teeth, used for grasping, tearing, shredding

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68
Q

premolars

A

grinding & crushing plant material

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69
Q

T or F: ruminants lack upper incisors

A

T

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70
Q

dental pad

A

keratinized tissue pad that helps ruminants grasp & tear grass along with their tongue

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71
Q

what allows tongue to contract & move in 3D space

A

skeletal muscles in the tongue run in different orientations

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72
Q

what taste receptor do cats lack?

A

sweet

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73
Q

T or F: sweet receptors are located throughout GI tract not just mouth, can be used for detection of glucose or monosaccharides within the lumen

A

T

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74
Q

2 salivary gland cells

A
  1. acinar cells:
    - secrete serous fluid & muscous
  2. duct cells
    - secrete K+ and bicarbonate
    - reabsorb NA & CI
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75
Q

why is the secretion of bicarbonate important in ruminates?

A

buffering pH of saliva

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76
Q

T or F: less sodium is able to be reabsorbed when mouth is watery due to fast flow rate

A

T

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77
Q

T or F: composition changes with saliva flow rate so humans have less flow than sheep

A

T

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78
Q

3 major salivary glands & 1 minor gland

A

3 major:
1) parotid- cheek
2) submandibular- under jaw
3) sublingual- under tongue

1 minor: buccal glands (cheek)

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79
Q

saliva secretion benefits

A

1) saliva- amylase breaks down polysaccharides into disacchardies
2) antibacterial
3) thermoregulation
4) phermones- boar sense gilt

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80
Q

T or F: PNS stimulates more serous fluid secretions than SNS

A

T

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81
Q

PNS vs SNS salivary secretion (stimulation/inhibition, fluid)

A

SNS- inhibition, mucous

PNS- stimulates, serous

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82
Q

simple/unconditioned response

A

pressure or chemoreceptors when food is in the mouth- want increased secretion saliva

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83
Q

conditioned response

A

production of saliva & priming the stomach when seeing, smelling or thinking of food

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84
Q

salivary secretion pathway

A

inputs go to cerebral cortex -> salivary centre in medulla-> secretion -> pressure in mouth or autonomic nerves send messages to salivary glands to increase salivary production when smelling food

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85
Q

swallowing reflex

A

temporarily close off trachea & allow contents to move down into esophagus

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86
Q

epiglottis vs glottis

A

epiglottis- cartilage that folds down
glottis- vocal cords & swallowing reflex

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87
Q

how do afferent & efferent nerves function to cause swallowing?

A

afferent nerves carry signal to CNS and swallowing centre sends signals to efferent nerves to cause muscle contraction

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88
Q

oropharyngeal phase

A

tongue presses against hard palate, uvula closes off nasal passage, laryngeal muscles contract, epiglottis pressure down & swallowing centre inhibits respiration

89
Q

what is the fastest swallowing phase

A

oropharyngeal phase

90
Q

esophageal phase

A

negative pressure draws air in & opens upper sphincter and the lower sphincter is tightly closed to avoid heart burn

91
Q

how does muscus help heart burn feeling?

A

protects lining along esophagus

92
Q

primary persistalsis (what it does, what nerves, autonomic contraction)

A

rings constrict in coordinated contraction & squeeze contents down

controlled by cranial nerves, not autonomic

93
Q

secondary peristalsis

A

occurs if food bolus gets stuck, is a 2nd stronger wave of peristalsis that contracts more vigoursly to move food bolus down

94
Q

does digestion or absorption occur in secondary peristalsis?

A

no

95
Q

3 regions of the stomach

A

fundus- storage & electrical rhythm
body- secretions & mixing
antrum- regulates stomach emptying

96
Q

what is the stomach lined with?

A

smooth muscle & rugae

97
Q

rugae

A

folds in stomach wall that expand when you eat a big meal

98
Q

3 functions of the stomach

A

storage, digestion & chyme

99
Q

empty vs full stomach volume

A

empty- 50ml
full- 1L

100
Q

T or F: stomach has constant tone

A

T

101
Q

what is an important function of smooth muscle in the stomach?

A

adapts quickly to stretch & decreases tension to allow the stomach to contract

102
Q

where are cells are cajal located?

A

fundus, which is where electrical activity begins

103
Q

at what part of the stomach does the peristaltic contraction become stronger? why?

A

antrum b/c smooth muscle layer is thicker here so it can contract stronger

104
Q

how does mixing work?

A

peristalsis wave hits the sphincter causing it to close and then chyme hits the closed sphincter & ricochets back into the antrum

105
Q

what is rate of mixing controlled by?

A

cells of cajal

106
Q

more depolarization does what to the peristaltic wave?

A

pushes wave closer to the threshold = more frequent action potentials = more frequent emptying of the stomach

107
Q

T or F: vomiting is reverse peristalsis

A

F

108
Q

2 types of “reverse peristalsis”

A

regurgitation & rumination

109
Q

how does vomiting work?

A

diaphragm contracts & skeletal muscles push stomach contents up & out

110
Q

how is vomiting signalled?

A

vomiting centre in medulla

111
Q

what is the mechanism used to prevent vomit from going into the trachea?

A

closing the glottis

112
Q

2 areas of gastric secretions

A

oxyntic mucosa (fundus & body) and pyloric gland area (antrum)

113
Q

oxyntic mucosa-what parts of stomach & what does it secrete

A

top half of stomach (fundus & body), secretes HCI & pepsin

114
Q

pyloric gland area-what does it secrete

A

bottom half of stomach (antrum), secretes hormones

115
Q

exocrine cells (3)

A

parietal, chief, & mucous neck cells

116
Q

endocrine cells

A

ECL cells

117
Q

what to parietal cells secrete

A

HCI b/c want stomach to have low pH so there are lots of H ions moving around to be used by Na ATPase pump

118
Q

where are H & CI ions moved into?

A

lumen

119
Q

T or F: energy is required for pumps & everything else is passive

A

T

120
Q

what do chief cells secrete?

A

pepsinogen but forms pepsin when it hits low pH environment

121
Q

what do mucous neck cells secrete?

A

mucus

122
Q

what occurs if mucus migrates up vs down?

A

up: become epithelial cells
down: become chief or parietal cells

123
Q

what do ECL cells secrete?

A

histamine that stimulates release of HCI

124
Q

T or F: pyloric gland area does not secrete HCI

A

T

125
Q

what 2 types of cells does the pyloric gland area produce?

A

endocrine & exocrine

126
Q

what do G cells secrete?

A

gastrin

127
Q

what is gastrin?

A

endocrine hormone that is stimulated by chyme & stimulates all other cells

128
Q

what is pepsin

A

digestive enzyme in the stomach that breaks down proteins into small peptides

129
Q

what do D cells secrete?

A

somatostatin

130
Q

what is somatostatin

A

paracrine hormone- stimulated by low pH & inhibits everything

131
Q

when does the stomach have low pH?

A

when it is empty

132
Q

T or F: D cells act as negative feedback control

A

T

133
Q

cephalic phase

A

anticipating a meal, stimulates G, chief, parietal & ECL cells

134
Q

gastric phase

A

stimuli from the stomach are sensed by chemoreceptors & stretch receptors & secrete histamine to stimulate gastric secretion

135
Q

inhibition of secretion

A

less stretch = inhibits intrinsic nerve = less Ach & gastrin = less secretion

136
Q

4 factors that protect the stomach lining

A

1) membrane is impermeable to H so HCI cannot enter cells
2) tight junctions prevent HCI from penetrating
3) mucus coating
4) bicarbonate rich mucus- neutralizes

137
Q

what are accessory organs & examples

A

support organs, not directly part of the tract

pancreas, liver & gallbladder

138
Q

endocrine glands- what do they produce & what % of the pancreas

A

insulin & glucagon, 2%

139
Q

exocrine glands- what do they produce & what % of the pancreas

A

pancreatic juice from acinar & duct cells, 98%

140
Q

where are enzymes of the pancreas stored? why?

A

zymogen granules to avoid autodigestion

141
Q

proteolytic enzymes-

A

break down proteins into small peptides, produced in inactive form

142
Q

pancreatic amylase

A

carbohydrate digesting enzyme - breaks starch into diasaccharides

143
Q

T or F: pancreatic amylase does not need to be activated b/c there is lots of starch floating around = no risk of auto-digestion

A

T

144
Q

what is the primary amylase in starch digestion?

A

pancreatic amylase

145
Q

pancreatic lipase

A

breaks triglycerides into 1 monglyceride & 2 free fatty acids

146
Q

T or F: pancreatic lipase is the only enzyme that digests lipids

A

T

147
Q

Steatorrhea

A

fat is not digested so it comes out in feces

148
Q

pancreatic juice

A

alkaline aqueous solution with NaHCO3 & H2O to neutralize stomach acid as it moves along the tract

149
Q

T or F: HCO3 is secreted into lumen, H+ goes into blood

A

T

150
Q

secretin

A

released from duodenum in response to low pH
stimulates duct cell secretion to neutralize

151
Q

CCK

A

released from duodenum in response to presence of fat & protein
stimulates acinar cell secretion to digest fats & proteins

152
Q

pancreatis

A

blockage of duct = fluid accumulation

153
Q

what is the most important organ in metabolism

A

liver

154
Q

hemoglobin -> heme toxicity

A

RBC break down into heme which is toxic so it gets converted to bilirubin

155
Q

2 plasma proteins & their use

A

albumin & globulins- transport proteins for non-water soluble things

156
Q

angiotensinogen

A

hormone that helps regulate blood pressure

157
Q

bile salts function

A

emlusify lipids

158
Q

what 6 things form a micelle?

A

cholesterol, lecithin, bile salts, monoglyceride & 2 fatty acids

159
Q

canaliculi

A

small ducts that merge into bile ducts to form the hepatic bile duct

160
Q

what do bile ducts secrete?

A

H2O & NaHCO3

161
Q

bile salt recycling process

A

bile salts in liver -> stomach -> colon -> reabsorbed to liver

162
Q

what vein brings bile back to the liver

A

hepatic portal vein

163
Q

characteristic of bile salts that prevents coalescing

A

hydrophilic parts are negative charged

164
Q

purpose of micelles?

A

carry digestive fats to the brush border of small intestine to be absorbed

165
Q

what happens if no micelles are formed?

A

fat droplets will float to top of aqueous environment & not absorb fully

166
Q

how is heme excreted?

A

is converted to biliverdin then to bilirubin which is excreted in bile

167
Q

regulation of bile release

A

CCK stimulates gallbladder to contract & release stored bile into the duodenum and secretin is stimulated to neutralize

168
Q

gall stones

A

solid masses that accumulate in bile & block ducts

169
Q

cirrhosis

A

formation of scar tissue in the liver

170
Q

hepatitis

A

inflammation of the liver

171
Q

hypoproteinemia

A

less production of albumin = fluid leaks into interstitial space

172
Q

what happens to vitamin K absorption if there are less bile salts?

A

decreases

173
Q

fatty liver syndrome

A

mobilized fat goes to liver and converts fatty acids to triglycerides & stores them = liver damage

174
Q

3 parts of the small intestine

A

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

175
Q

what part of the small intestine is the major digestion & absorption

A

jejunum

176
Q

what cells do the secreting & absorbing in the small intestine?

A

epithelial cells

177
Q

lacteal

A

lymphatic vessel used for fat transport

178
Q

how often are cells of the intestine replaced?

A

every 3 days

179
Q

how does parvo work?

A

parvo enters crypts and attacks dividing stem cells which damages stem cells & intestinal lining

180
Q

segmentation contractions

A

circular smooth muscle does alternating squeezing motions to break up chyme & mixes lipid droplets

181
Q

when are segmentation contractions most active?

A

after a meal

182
Q

migrating motility complex (MMC)

A

sweeping motions using circular & longitudinal muscles that starts at stomach & moves down intestine to clean out anything left behind from segmentation contractions

183
Q

when is MMC most active?

A

in between meals (inter-digestive) period

184
Q

2 steps to the MMC

A

1) oral- circular muscles contract behind bolus & squeezes
2) aboral- longitudinal muscles contract in front of bolus & shortens intestine to propel food forward

185
Q

how does the small intestine clear parasites

A

body senses something foreign and increases MMC to sweep parasites out

186
Q

colitis

A

inflammation of digestive tract

187
Q

CCK vs secretin intestinal secretion mechanisms

A

CCK- stimulated by presence of fat & protein and stimulates bile & pancreatic juice release
secretin- stimulated by low pH and releases NaHCO3 to balance pH

188
Q

where are vitamin B12 & bile salts absorbed?

A

ileum

189
Q

primary vs secondary vs tertiary active transport

A

1) uses a pump
2) uses glucose symporter
3) antiporter & symporter

190
Q

water absorption

A

H2O is drawn into interstitial fluid through leaky tight junctions

191
Q

how are fat soluble vitamins transported?

A

chylomicrons

192
Q

cecum function

A

blind sac where microbial fermentation occurs

193
Q

lleocecal valve

A

one way valve that prevents back flow into ileum

194
Q

lleocecal sphincter-open vs closed

A

open: ileal contents flow into colon, relaxation stimulated by gastrin
closed: cecal contents flow into colon

195
Q

what is the large intestine made of

A

colon & rectum

196
Q

function of the large intestine (3)

A

water & salt absorption, microbial fermentation & waste storage

197
Q

sacculation

A

expandable sacs that allow for increased volume during microbial fermentation

198
Q

taeniae coli

A

bands of longitudtional muscle that run along the colon, its contraction exerts pressure on the wall & creates pouches

199
Q

why does the large intestine have a slow passage rate?

A

to allow time for microbial fermentation

200
Q

haustral contractions- initated, rate, frequency

A

initiated by cells of cajal, less frequent & slow

201
Q

peristaltic contractions large intestine

A

propels contents towards rectum, stimulated by pacemaker cells

202
Q

anti-peristaltic contractions large intestine

A

moves contents into cecum

203
Q

large intestine- mass movement vs gastrocolic reflex

A

mass- segments of colon contract and rapidly drives contents to colon/rectum for storage
gastrocolic reflex- food in stomach triggers mass movement to colon, stimulated by gastrin & PNS

204
Q

defecation reflex

A

poop, triggered by stretch receptors in the rectum

205
Q

internal vs external anal sphincter (muscle type, voluntary/involuntary)

A

internal- smooth muscle, involuntary, relaxes

external- skeletal muscle, voluntary, relaxes

206
Q

3 things that happen when trying to poop:

A

1) internal sphincter relaxes
2) external sphincter relaxes
3) abdominal muscles contract

207
Q

secretions in the large intestine

A

mucus & buffers, but no digestive enzymes

208
Q

absorption in large intestine-what pump

A

Na/K ATPase pump, H2O is absorbed, very tight junctions

209
Q

scours

A

diarrhea - causes dehydration

210
Q

constipation - cause, diet & neuronal factors

A

lots of mixing, less peristaltic contractions, low fiber diet and stress/medications

211
Q

cat vs dog digestive physiology

A

cats have higher protein requirement, need taurine and cannot metabolize fructose so it is excreted in urine

212
Q

crop

A

pouch for food storage

213
Q

proventriculus

A

gastric stomach, releases HCI & pepsin, no storage

214
Q

gizzard (venticulus)

A

very muscular, site of mastication where food is grinded

215
Q

T or F: avian digestive tract is shorter than animals to reduce weight for flight

A

T

216
Q

meckel’s diverticulum

A

junction between jejunum & ileum

217
Q

avian colon

A

reverse peristalsis pushes contents into ceca

218
Q

ceca function

A

birds have 2 cecum (ceca), water absorption & microbial fermentation

219
Q

cloaca & vent

A

exit for feces, urine & eggs/semen

VBMS 324 (15 decks)

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