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midterm > Nats 1660 > Flashcards

Nats 1660 Flashcards

1
Q
  • If for a particular gene a person’s two copies are different, the person is
A

Heterozygous

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2
Q
  • If for a particular gene a person’s two copies are identical, the person is
A

Homozygous

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3
Q

are coded sequences of DNA for making Protien

A

gene

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4
Q

are different versions of particular gene

A

alleles

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5
Q

Two cell divisions

A

Mitosis and Meiosis

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6
Q
  • All cell divisions in eukaryotes (therefore all animals) except divisions making eggs and sperm
  • One cell division per mitosis event
  • Two identical diploid daughter cells
A

Mitosis

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7
Q
  • Only cell dividions (in eukaryotes and therefore in all animals) that make eggs and sperm
  • two cell division per meiosis event
  • Four haploid daughter cells
  • Even sperm are called daughter cells technically
A

Meiosis

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8
Q
  • All genes come in pairs (“diploidy”)
  • When making gametes, the pairs split apart with only one gene form each pair going into each gamete (“haploidy”)
A

Law of segregation

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9
Q
  • All genes come in pairs
A

diploidy

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10
Q
  • When making gametes, the pairs split apart with only one gene form each pair going into each gamete
A

haploidy

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11
Q
  • That when we make gametes, we seperate the gene pairs by seperating the pairs of homologous chromosomes
  • So how does this happen
A

Meiosis

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12
Q

Prior to…
- usual cell division () or
- Gamete-making cell division ()

A

mitosis and meiosis

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13
Q

These are drawn condesed, but …
I I I I I I I I I

A

unduplicated

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14
Q

These are drawn condensed, and …
x x x x x x x

A

duplicated

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15
Q

Not identical to each other because they have the different alleles

A

Non-sister chromatids

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16
Q

are identical to each other because they have the same alleles

A

Sister chromatids

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17
Q

() a chromosome, the alleles for a () () at a () () are () in the () ()

A

Within, given gene, given locus, identical, two chromatids

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18
Q

() chromosomes, the () are () for a () (), but often the () are not the same (If the person is hetero zygous at the locus)

A

Between, genes, the same, given locus, alleles,

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19
Q

Produces Identical, diploid cells

A

Mitosis

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20
Q

Produces two identical cells

A

Mitotic cell division

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21
Q

Body cells, but not gametes
the resulting cells are called

A

Mitosis, daughter cells

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22
Q

Step 1 of mitosis

A

There is trading between chromosomes

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23
Q

Step 2 of mitosis

A

There are two divisions. THe first one separates homologous chromosomes. (but each still has two chromatids)

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24
Q

Step 3 of Mitosis

A

The second pulls the chromatids

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25
Q

Step 4 of mitosis

A

The result is four haploid cells (gametes)

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25
Q

What is a crossing-over

A

An exchange between Non sister chromatids

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26
Q

The foursome is a

A

Tetrad

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27
Q

The arrangement is

A

Synapsis

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28
Q

A synopsis produces crossing -over at a

A

chiasma

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29
Q

The result of chiasma producing in a crossing-over is …. chromosomes

A

recombined

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30
Q

How common is crossing-over in humans

A

Approximately one to three crossing-over events per pair of chromosomes

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31
Q

How common is crossing-over in one study for females

A

female meiosis has about 50% more crossing-over events 42 versus 28

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32
Q

In many species, males “imitate” females

A

To avoid male aggression as they try to access female mates of other males

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33
Q

Why in some species do females imitate males

A

To avoid male harassment

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34
Q

Insects like bees have more than on kind of female

A

Queen, male, soldier

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35
Q

Clownfish are seqyential hermaphrodites but are also called P…

A

Protandrous - first male

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36
Q

Fairy basslets are sequential hermaphrodites

A

Protogynous - First female

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37
Q

Gamlet fits are

A

Simultaneous hermaphrodites

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38
Q

Establishes which sex proceeds in development

A

Determination

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39
Q

Is the complex of developmental changes that proceeds and accumulate

A

differentiation

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40
Q

The switch for a female development or a male development is a gene, sometimes associated with a sex chromosomes is which determination

A

Genetic sex determination

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41
Q

The finger here making the choice, can be () or it cna be ()

A

genetic, environmental

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41
Q

In most species, once the choice is made, it is

A

irrevocable (but not always

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42
Q

The switch that chooses which program to follow is () a gene itself, but a factor, like temperature

A

Environmental sex determination

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43
Q

Not male or female

A

Bipotential

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43
Q

Bonellia are…

A

neither male nor female

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44
Q

Once maleness is determined for a parasite inside the crab

A

Male moves towards the female and takes residence inside her:
- He becomes parasitic on her, and
- He provides her with sperm for life

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44
Q

Cooler incubation temerature produce one sex and warmer incubation temperatures produce the other sex

A

Temperature Sex determination

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45
Q

Eggs are laid inside rotting wood for which mammal

A

Reptiles

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46
Q

Female Viviparous skinks can () the the sex of their offspring

A

Manipulate

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47
Q

MALES ARE PRODUCED WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS WARMER
BUT WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS COOLER, THE PERCENTAGE OF PRODUCING FEMALES ARE LIKELY

A

Temperature Sex determination

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48
Q

Female viviparous skinks () () to manipulate the sex of her offspring

A

explout temperature

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49
Q

If a female can bias her offspring in favour of one sex, which should it be?

A

The rarer sex at the moment

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50
Q

When males are rarer sex they produce sons, but when females are rarer sex they produce daughters

A

Viviparous skinks

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51
Q

If the female dies (or is experimentally removed) the breeding male becomes the female, and the “top” non-breeding male moves up as the breeding male (for clown fish

A

Sequential hermaphideze

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51
Q

Sequential sex in plants

A

Jack in the pulpit common in ontario forests

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52
Q

Why is it hard to determine the sex of each plant

A

because they will both have female and male parts

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53
Q

Saccilina

A

is a parasite of crabs

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54
Q

What will the scculina do to a crab a female crab

A

Enters the body and uses the crab reproductive machinery to produce sacculina eggs instead of crab eggs

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55
Q

what will the sacculina do to a male crab

A

enters a male body, but first changes into a female crab with hormones and then uses the egg producing machinery for its own eggs

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56
Q

If there is a sequenctial hermapherdise or a (protandrous) species…

A

and it is monogmous itll be male then female first

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57
Q

If there is a protogynous species it is a…

A

first female then male

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58
Q

what will a wolbachia do to an insect

A

Infection changes the sexual functions of the host

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59
Q

Why does Wolbachia want to be in a female mosquito, rather than a male mosquito

A

Survive in eggs, but not in sperm

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60
Q

First way to change phenotype

A

Bye terminating developing males:
Males are killed during larval development, which increases the rate of born females

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61
Q

Second way to change phenotypes

A

Feminization:
By making males develop as females, often fetile

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62
Q

Fourth way to change phenotypes

A

By causing “cutoplasmic incompatibility”
- wolbachia-infected males cannot reproduce with uninfected females (reducing their productivity)
- Favours infected females over uninfected ones

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62
Q

A third way to change phenotype

A

Induce parthenogenesis:
here, infected females reproduce without males (creating populations with few or no males)

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63
Q

Why do wolbachia live in insect eggs but not in sect sperm

A
  • Infected females can pass on bacterial colonies to their offspring so it is not in the bacteria’s interest to live inside male bodies
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63
Q

Are toxins that interfere with hormonal regulations

A

Endocrine disruptors

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64
Q

Ecotoxins have contributed to a surprosomhly high rate of intersecuality in which animal…

A

polar bears

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65
Q

Interfers with expression of genes regullted by hormones

A

Toxins

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66
Q

The “switch” that chooses which program to follow is
- not a gene itself, but an …. factor

A

Environmental Sex determination

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67
Q

establishes which sex proceeds in development

A

Determination

67
Q

one or more …, often found on sex chromosomes (but not always)

A

Genetic sex determination

68
Q

Is the complex of development changes that proceed and accumulate

A

Differentiation

68
Q

Nettie Steven

A

Early 1990s
had a research grant to test Mendel’s claims
Use mealworm beetles, tenebrio
Discoverer of sex chromosomes

69
Q

Steven’ mealworms karyotypes

A

1905
- beetle sperm chromosomes under the mirocsope
- all carried 20 chromosomes
- some sperm samples: 19 - large and 1 samll
- some sperm samples: 20 - large
first case

70
Q

But, genetic sex determination….

A

… is not always so simple as having, or not having, a Y chromosomes

70
Q

1906: Wilson lab chromosomal SD there are two species:

A

Protenor and Lygaeus

71
Q

male body cells have only 13, includinh 1 X

A

protenor

72
Q

Scenario
- Extrac pieces of DNA from the Y chromosome
- Different pieces in different cases
- they also extract already - fertilized eggs from
- they inset the Y pieces into the eggs
- Then they see what phenotypes develop

A

It changed the phenotype of every mice

72
Q

Male body cells have 14, including an X and a Y

A

lygaeus

73
Q

The mammalian Y is fairly, and the mammalian X is fairly.

A

Small, large

74
Q

SRY

A

Sex-determining region of the Y

75
Q

what does SRY

A

Active genes: crossing over with X during maete-making active genes: NO crossing - over during gamete-making
Mostly inactive DNA

76
Q

TDF

A

Testies determining factor

76
Q

The protien it codes for is specifically known as

A

TDF

77
Q

XY produce??

A

Male

77
Q

Within a human X chromosomes how many diseases will be traced

A

More than 60

78
Q

XX chromosomes produce??

A

Female

79
Q

what does bipotential mean

A

To have the potential to be indifferent
No development at this point this is either male or female

80
Q

Mullerian ducts

A

Female

81
Q

For females, what happens when there is no SRY or the making of TDF

A

the second gene is not transcribed and this testis- making protein is not made

81
Q

Wolffian ducts

A

male

82
Q

About week 7 in a chromosomal female (XY)

A
  1. Dismantling the wolffian ducts (male ducts)
  2. The promotion of the mullerian duct system (demale ducts)
  3. The gonads start to develop into ovarian tissue
83
Q

About week 7 in chromosomal male (XY)

A
  1. Develop testes, which star to produce two hormones
  2. anti-mullerian hormone (AMH)
    - dismantles the mullerian ducts (female ducts)
  3. Testosterone
    - promotes the wolffian duct system (male ducts)
84
Q

For females what happens to testosterone and AMH

A

Lower levels

85
Q

In the nuclei of the cells of a women, one of the x-chromosomes is mostly shut down so that generally the information from only one x-chromosome is used

A

Bar-body

86
Q

the sex-determination system employed by honeybees is called

A

Haploidiploidy

87
Q

In terms of the sex of the offspring produce, male honeybees produce no (), although they can have () through their daughters

A

Males, grandsons

88
Q

In turtles with temperature-sensitive sex determination, the temperature above which one sex develops and below which the other sex develops is known as

A

pivotal temperature

89
Q

In the viviparous skink, female disproportionately produce sons when…

A

Adult males are scarce and daughters when adult females are scarce

90
Q

fairy basslet fish live in groups that are most stable when they are about one-third (). When this proportion drops to below one-third, one or more of the larger () will change sex to bring it back into balance

A

Male, female

91
Q

Any infection that disables a host organism’s reproductive system is known as a

A

parasitic castrator

92
Q

In what groups is the female heterogametic sex

A

birds and butterflies

93
Q

red-green color-blindness is a sex-linked trait because the m…

A

because the mutant allele is a gene on the X-chromosome

93
Q

for genes that are on the x-chromosomes, we say that males are

A

hemizygous

93
Q

In the condition called “guevedoce”, prior to puberty the individual has apparently () genitalia, but after puberty the individual develops () genitalia

A

female and male

94
Q

feminization of males can be caused by pullutants known as

A

endocrine distruptors

95
Q

in human embryo, if the () are retained, they will develop into the internal male reproductive system

A

mullarian ducts

96
Q

In an unusual case, fatima has red-green color blindness, just like her father. she wishes to have children and has kids with a father who doesn’t
1) what are the chances the sons will have it
2) what are the chances that the daughters will have it
3) what are the chances for her daughters to carry the red-green allele color-blindness

A

1) 100% of sons will have it
2) 0% of daughters will have it
3) 100% of their daughters will carry it

97
Q

The linking of a particular trait (usually undesirable) with a particular sex

A

Sex linkage

97
Q

Red eye flies are … and white eyed flies are …

A

Wild type and mutant

98
Q

Wild types are dominant to

A

White eyed flies

99
Q

The two important consequences in sex linkage

A
  1. Genes are indeed located on particular chromosomes (some of htem on the X)
  2. Characters can be sex-linked
    - If the factors (genes, alleles) are located on the X chromosome
    - in organisms that have chromosomal sex determination (not all do)
100
Q

Sex-linked characters are linked to which

A

the heterogametic sex

101
Q

Having two identical alleles

A

homozygous

102
Q

Having two different alleles for a particular gene

A

heterozygous

103
Q

having one allele for a particular gene
- ie alleles on the X chromosome fo a male
-it means half

A

Hemizygous

104
Q

What are sex-linked characteristics in humans

A

Red green color blindness
Duchene muscular dystrophy
Haemophilia(clotting dysfunction)
Boys get these diseases from their carrier mothers

105
Q

If 1 out ot every 100 X-chromosome (1%) has the colour blindness allele, what % of the male populartion is colour-blind

A

1% (0.01)

106
Q

If 1 out of every 100 X-chromosomes (1%) has the colour blindness allele, what % of the female population is colour blind?

A

0.01% (0.0001)

107
Q

In females, is the gene on this DNA ever de-coded and transcribed into a protein

A

No, because there was never SRY and there is never TDF

108
Q

What organism have the SRY gene

A

Placentals mammals; human whales, carnivores, rodents, bats, seals, deer, etc
Marsupial mammals: kangaroos, koala “bear”, opossums,
Non monotreme mammals: duck-billed platypus

109
Q

Three variants of GSD

A

Birds are the mirror image of mammals
roundworms: XX is not a female
Honeybee GSD is completely different

110
Q

The one that porduces two types of gametes

A

heterogametic sex

110
Q

Birds: the female is the hertogametic sex

A

ZZ is male ZW is female
Also some:
Butterflies
fish and
Reptiles and amphibians

111
Q

the one that produces one type of gamete

A

homogametic sex

112
Q

In roundworms, what is the genotype of females?

A

There are no females

112
Q

sound roundworms are true hermaphrodites
There are two sex phenotypes

A
  • hermaphrodites: homogametic (eggs and sperm have one X)
  • males: heterogametic (sperm have either one X or no sex chromosome)
113
Q

Is a surprising sex determination system
they have no father, their single set of chromosome comes from their mother
Examples of nts, bees, and wasps

A

haplodiploidy

113
Q

Meiosis in honeybees for males

A

do no do meiosis because their cells are haploid to begin with

114
Q

Meiosis in honeybees for females

A

queens do meiosis
- their eggs that hatch without being fertilized are males
- those that are fetilized are females

115
Q

A gene is () when there is a change in a base-pair in the coded sequence of DNA

A

Mutation

115
Q

Three-linked skink has a GSD system, but …

A

temperature can over-ride GSD and determine offspring sex

115
Q

If bees get special foods they will turn into

A

The queen eat royal jelly

116
Q

This happens when the protein can be different form the original, most often with negative consequences

A

Transcribed, then translated

117
Q

sickle cell disease is a

A

point mutation

118
Q

A sickle-cell anemia is a….

A

point mutation

118
Q

Creates alleles that may cause changes to the resultant protein

A

point mutation

119
Q

Four examples where point mutation can cause intersex phenotypes

A
  1. 5-Ar dificiency - feminization of an Xy
  2. Geuvedoces - pre-puberty feminization of an XY
  3. CAH - virilization of an XX
  4. Swyer Syndrome
    - there are others too
120
Q

What is 5-AR

A

5-alpha reductase

121
Q

gene codes for 5-alpha-reductase which is an enzyme

A

what enzyme is needed to make the powerful androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

122
Q

What is DHT

A

Dihydrotestosterone

123
Q

What happens to SRY wot make TDF whcih regulates (activates) other gene involved in making testes

A

To be transcribed and translated

124
Q

which chromosome is 5Ar in

A

the #5

124
Q

Testes make

A

testosterone

125
Q

What makes 5AR protein, to convert some testosterone into DHT

A

transcribed and translated

126
Q

the developing testis moves from an internal position to an external position in the

A

scrotum

126
Q

DHT is a more powerful..

A

androgen and testosterone

127
Q

What plays a role in the process and in the development of the penis

A

DHT

128
Q

5AR significantly affects detal development of XY fetuses

A
  • No DHT results in female genitalia or intersex genitalia
  • But there is no female reproductive anatomy (no uterus)
  • At puberty
  • the internal testes start producing lots of testosterone
  • male secondary sexual characteristics appear more strongly
129
Q

On the #5 chromosome there is an enzyme called

A

5AR

130
Q

What if 5AR cannot be made

A

No DHT and therefore incomplete testicular development in the male fetus

130
Q

If the mutant allele for this A rare mutant allele of this gene does not produce a functioning

A

5AR

131
Q

If the mutant allele for this gene is present in the homozygous condition…

A

The person has no 5AR and therefor an XY individual cannot convert testosterone into DHT

132
Q

Xy human homozyous for this mutant will not produce

A

male genitallia

133
Q

Guevedoces - Penis at Twelve

A

A type of 5Ar deficiency but
at puberty, these “female phenotype children” change into adult males
As adults:
- reduced facial hair adn
- Small prostate gland (gland that plays a role in development and delivery of semen
- Usually not fertile
- But: male genitalia and secondary Sex characteristics

134
Q

Is the opposite of the 5AR mutation possible

A

An XX person with male genitalia Yes

135
Q

What is CAH

A

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

136
Q

CAH causes hor…

A

cause hormone production dysfunction in the adrenal glands

137
Q

Produce and regulate several hormones
- including adrenaline, which is a fight or flight hormone
- but also androgens (including testosterone)

A

Adrenal glands

138
Q

Those who have CAH

A
  • Cannot produce balanced levels of hormones
  • Androgens are produced in too high concentrations
  • both XX and XY can have precocious puberty
  • XX: virilization occurs to some extent
139
Q

the development of male primary and secondary sexual characteristics

A

virilization

140
Q

The problem with alleles on one or more gene on chromosome #6

A

carries are geterozygotes

141
Q

CAH: Has degress of effect

A

Milder forms in XX: less precocious puberty, more ambiguous genitalia
More complete forms in XX: pecocious puberty, male phenotype

142
Q

What evidence the SRY confers maleness

A

offspring mice that are XX but are male

143
Q

Swyer Sundrome: SRY mutation

A

an apparent female whose cells are all XY but whose Y chromosome has no working SRY gene

144
Q

Swyer syndrome

A
  • No SRY, so an apparently female person develops despite having all cells XY
  • begins life as a female phenotype, and no one knows otherwise
  • But at puberty: development of female secondary sexual characteristics fail
  • can be treated with hormone therapy
145
Q

Why are humans not hermaphrodites

A

Humans are not reproductively in both roles
- Humans with ambigous biological sex are properly described as intersex

146
Q

Individuals are not reproductively both sexes

A

Intersexuals

147
Q

The result of down syndrome is

A

the problem in meiosis
- Trisomy 21
an extra copy in the 21 chromosome

148
Q

How does down syndrom occur

A

Non-disjunctions
- Junction = joined
- disjunction = separated
- non-disjunction = non separated

149
Q

Which of thse ways does not produce a turner’s syndrome person

A

Sperm with no sex chromosome and egg with a Y chromosome

150
Q

XXY (klinefeleter) is what sexual phenotype

A

male phentoypes: confirming it is the Y that makes males phenotypes, rahter than a single X
AND: it cannot be a single does of X that makes a male, since the single X genotype produces a female (turner’s) phenotypes

151
Q

WHich od these ways can produce a XYY person

A

AN egg with a X and a sperm with two Ys

152
Q

XXY Is usually

A

Infertile with rudimentary testes

153
Q

47 XXY

A

usually fertile but usually not diagonsed

154
Q

Monosomy Y

A

This genotype may occur at the level of the zygote
- But it never reaches live birth
- the individual would have no copies of the - 900 genes on the X chromosome

155
Q

Sexual mosaics are intersexual phenotypes

A
  • Mosaic: a mixture , often used to describe pieces of art
  • A chromosomal mutation from a disjunction in mitosis
    _ but still a chromosomal mutation
156
Q

What is non-disjunction

A

the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during cell division

157
Q

Most animals are …. which begins very earlly in development

A

Bilaterally symmetrical

158
Q

Bilateral gynandromorphs

A

Gyn is female
andro is male
morph is form

midterm (3 decks)

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