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NRM Midtem > NRM Midterm > Flashcards

NRM Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

1940s

A

67% Forest Cover
20% of deforestation due to Banana plantations
Panama Disease strikes: United Fruit Company moves to Southern Pacific
1942: Demand for Land: “Ley de Poseedores en Precario” ( Squatters law)
Claim land as long as you can “improve it”- Production

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2
Q

1950s

A

56% Forest Cover
Deforestation: 4% each year bc of bananas, palm oil, cattle
1955: Tourism Institute
1956: First Wildlife Conservation Law
Restrictions on hiking and fishing
Ministry of Agriculture (MINAE): In charge of Natural Resources
Problematic: Prioritized Agriculture over wildlife conservation

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3
Q

1960s

A

“Turning point” for conservation
45% Forest Cover
Growing economy, resistant bananas, credits and incentives for agriculture
Increased demand for land
1965: Cabo Blanco Absolute Natural Reserve
Scandinavian couple bought land (1,200 ha then turned to government)
1969: Forest Law
Watershed Protection, control logging and forest fires
National Park Department ( Funds to upkeep parks, park rangers)

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4
Q

1970s

A

Forest Cover: 32%
Deforestation rate: 50,000 ha/year
Growing agro-export, increasing timber industry
Where’s the beef? Answer: Tiny Costa Rica
Several Protected areas created ( Land payments are delayed)
Still owe $150 million for more than 800 km of protected areas

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5
Q

1980s

A

Forest Cover: 20-25%
Deforestation rate: 42,00 ha/year (Decreased: not necessarily because of conservation efforts, but rather because could no longer expand)
Half of the country is cattle pasture
Economic crisis: CR has the highest per capita debt in Latin America
Beef prices dropped –> pastures abandoned–> Gov’t buys land for conservation
1986: Ministry of Environment (Now MINAE)
More funding, no longer under conflicting ministry of agriculture
1987: Debt for Nature Swaps
External Debt could be paid by conserving

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6
Q

1990s

A

Forest Cover: 40% (Primary forest, secondary forest, and plantations)
Deforestation rate: 16,00 ha/year
1996: New Forest Law
Forest Conversion Illegal!
Incentive for Landowners:
PES: Payment for Environmental Services program- financed and managed by FONAFIFIO (?)
Managed by National Fund of Forest Financing
1994: MINAE decentralized
“Managing Beyond the Borders”
1998: Costa Rican System of Conservation Areas ( SINAC Branch) 11 areas established
Integrate Development and Conservation
Regional Councils (due to decentralization of SINAC):
Criticized structures because of inefficiency in communication

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7
Q

2000s

A

2010: 52%
2015: 61% forest cover
Tourism earns $1.3 billion
2007: Initiative launched by President
Declared peace with nature
“Allow nation to aspire development that is environmentally sustainable” - president
Endowment “CR por siempre” (500 million- only received 15% (from developed countries?- not sure)
New mechanisms for carbon markets
REDD ( reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation)
Funded by World Bank
CR Carbon Neutral by 2021
Increasing Forest cover and protected areas

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8
Q

How did Costa Rica go from 100% forest cover to highest deforestation rate to reforestation
Explain political, social, economic drivers

A

1830’s Coffee Elite
Large forests cleared in the Central Valley for the coffee boom
Economic growth for the the young country (mainly smallholder farmers)
Squatters law: Paid to deforest as long as you produce
Minor Keith in 1849: Completed railroad construction connecting Pacific and Caribbean
Brought development and wealth to Caribbean Side (Jobs on Banana Plantations and Railroad Construction)
Agro-export economy
Incentives for landowners - paid for hectares of forest (not in practice)
Paid for removal of people in protected areas
Program for Environmental Services ( Government pays
people to not deforest)
Debt for Nature Swaps (1987)
New Forest Law (1996)–> First Forest Law (1969)

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9
Q

Structure of SINAC

A

Branch of MINAE
Costa Rican System of Conservation Areas
A decentralized organization, promotes participation
11 conservation areas created
Integrate development and conservation
Have regional councils (Criticized bc of inefficiency in commuication)

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10
Q

Accomplishments and Problems of MINAE (SINAC- Branch)

A

Problems
Gloriously underfunded, understaffed, underequipped, unmotivated stass
Government owes payment of protected areas to private owners (from 1970s protected areas: 150 million dollard for more than 800 km)
Inefficient structure for communication
Centralized financed admin: Corrupt –> money goes to top and is not distributed
Successes:
26% of national territory is protected
Remaining forests protected by law
Integration of local communities (at least on paper)
Environmental education ( People know worth ( tourism))

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11
Q

Objectives of all corridors

A

All Corridors: Increase CONNECTIVITY! Remember that landscape structure = function (Represent Different Habitats)
Not necessarily protected areas.
Scale is important (species-area ratio)

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12
Q

Objectives of rural corridors

A

Connect fragmented areas with a physical corridor (i.e Underpass, overpass, land bridges)
Help promote migration and reduce edge effects

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13
Q

Objectives of Urban Corridors

A

Can help reduce pollution, provides ecosystem services to highly disturbed areas, increase quality of life, more recreational areas, tools for land use planning

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14
Q

How do you plan an urban corridor

A

Need a committee of stakeholders to plan efficiently
Use expert knowledge
Use a focal species (Umbrella species)
Use path of least resistance (GIS)
Suitability and Sensitivity Analysis ( Corridor in steep areas where urban development is not good; Use prone to erode land to avoid urban spread)

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15
Q

Legal Process of Urban Corridors

A

Make a map –> Stakeholder Committee –> Complete legal documents –> Submit to SINAC corridor program

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16
Q

Challenges of Urban Corridors

A

Can attract pest (raccoons, rats, etc) and diseases
birds can crash in windows, lights can affect species that travel at night
land may already be occupied (social issues due to concentration problems) –> very hard to avoid pushing people off their land
Pollution
Funding
Conflicting Interests

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17
Q

Soil Horizon

A

O-Layer: Topsoil and organic matter
A- Layer: Minerals and organic matter
B-Layer: Nutrients and parent material
C-Layer: Weathered soil and parent material

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18
Q

Physical Properties of Soil

A

Texture: Distribution of Grain Size
Structure: prismatic, block (what you can see)
Density: bulk, pore volume (porosity)

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19
Q

Chemical Properties of Soil

A

pH: measure of chemical activity through hydrogen ions
Lower pH= higher acidity
Normal levels of pH: 4.5-8
Aluminum toxicity
Nutrients can’t be taken up if pH is wrong

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20
Q

Nutrients

A

Phosphates: When they bind to ions they cannot be uptaken by plants
higher acidity= lower nutrients
Sources: Organic Materials, atmosphere, aerosols, fixing bacterial, parent material

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21
Q

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

A

How well nutrients( cations) can be held in the soil
defines how fast nutrients are leached
Old Soil = less charge= less nutrients

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22
Q

Soil Types

A 
Alfisols
Andisols
Entisols
Oxisols/Ultisols
Histosols
Vertisols
Inceptisols
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23
Q

Alfisols

A

Moderate pH level + nutrient level, less leached than ultisols/oxisols, expand and shrink
Most Common in Osa Peninsula
Good for cattle, and anything else

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24
Q

Andisols

A

Dark, volcanic ash soil, rich in organic matter, high cation exchange capacity
Central Valley, Northern Mountains
(LIFE Monteverde, Atenas Plantations)
Good for coffee

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25
Q

Entisols

A

Hardly developed horizons
They coud be rich if next to rivers (alluvial soil)
-Coastal Area near Nicaragua and Nicoya Peninsula
Good for cattle and bananas

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26
Q

Histosols/ Vertisols

A

Swamp, high carbon storage, lots of organic matterr (bc wtecause water does not allow it to breakdown)

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27
Q

Inceptisols

A

Young, easily eroded

  • Caribbean Slopes
  • Caribbean lowland and between central valley and mountains
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28
Q

Oxisols/Ultisols

A 
Old Soil
Red Soil
Weathered
Tropical Soil 
High Aluminum toxicity 
Acidic 
Poor nutrient Content
-Northern and Southern foothills reaching coastal areas
-Dole and El Progreso
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29
Q

General Tropical Soil

A

Deep Weathering and Leaching
Poor bc high precipitation and very old soil
One of the most productive but poorest soils
- Most nutrients are in biomass
-Important Fungi and Plant Relationshiop (fungi channels nutirents to plant, fungi gets sugar from photosynthesis)

30
Q

What properties are attributed to Land Use

A

High nutirients= Good for agriculture
Andisols: LIFE Monteverde, Atenas Plantations, Central Valley
Low nutrients feasible for cattle ranching (Oxisols/ultisols)

31
Q

Soil Degradation

A

Decline in soil conditions because of improper land use
Only happens with human intervention, if not, just a natural process
Soil degrades when you remove vegetation

32
Q

Nutrient Cycling

A 
Nutrients in soil absorbed by vegetation
Nutrients found in:
Organic matter, parent materials, atmosphere, aerosols,, vegetation (Decomposition- when a tree falls)
Nutrients lost: 
When runoff occurs, remove vegetaion
33
Q

Physical Degradation

A

Compact soil–> excessive overload flow –> erosion –> loss of topsoil
Erosion + high temperature –> Crustin

34
Q

Chemical Degradation

A

Acidity, Salinization, Pesticide Build-up

35
Q

Biological Degradation

A

Reduction of organic matter, loss of microbial biodiversity, poor nutrient cycling

36
Q

Tropical Agroecology

A

Using ecological theory to design and manage agricultural ecosystems, using technical and socioeconomic components, focusing on sustainability, equity and productivity.

37
Q

Why worry about agriculture?

A

Agriculture takes up 40% of terrestrial land

Increasing Population: Increasing worries on how we will feed the world

38
Q

How does agriculture relate to Climate Change?

A

Contributes 10-12% of greenhouse gas emissions (Manure- Methane, Rice- Methane, Cattle- Methane, Agricultural Soils- Nitrous oxide)
Deforestation (Mainly in tropical Areas), biodiversity loss
pollution

39
Q

Agroecology

A

Generates Inputs, Closed looped system

ex: El Progreso: Poop fertilizer –> food –> Compost

40
Q

Integrated Pest Management:

A

prevention (promote biodiversity, crop rotation, intercropping, resistant varieties), identifying, monitoring, control ( mechanical, biological, chemical)

41
Q

Industrial vs. Traditional Agriculture

A

Industrial: high yield varieties but inefficient (most food produced goes to animals not humans), prices are closely coupled with oil prices, high waste (40% calories lost)
Large-scale monocultures predominant because: Subsidized, free trade agreements, market concentration, economy of scale
THRU-PUT Systems
Traditional : polycultures of cassava, corn, beans common in tropics, negative: slash and burn , to be more productive: access to markets, new technologies, and affordable credit
CLOSED CYCLE systems
70% of global produce

42
Q

Tropical and Sustainable Agriculture

A

Tropical ecosystems converted to agriculture
Problems: Habitat loss, fragmentation, biodiversity loss, edge effects, roads, reduce connectivity
Intensification of Agriculture (i.e. Pineapple Production)
Homogenizes agricultural matrix between forest patches (Negative effects on biodiversity)
One crop economy → Constraints family-based livelihoods (Food security and agricultural diversity)
Sustainable Ag: Promotes landscape heterogeneity and economic diversity, smallholder agriculture, can help reach carbon neutral plan, increase habitat connectivity (retains more forest cover, Balances local economic growth with biodiversity conservation

43
Q

Can you up-scale sustainable agriculture?

A

Tompkins Conservation (Laguna Blanca Farm)
Invested $18 billion, in 10 years he recovered the money he invested
Economically feasible
El Progreso (meets production and environmental targets)
Need political will, investments, proper infrastructure, better governance

44
Q

Summary of Radiative Forcing

A

Any Primary Driver that changes earth’s energy balance
Anthropogenic RF ( increase human contribution to greenhouse effect) — human effects that confound natural processes
-We force extra 3w/m^2
Measure of how a factor affects the earth’s energy balance, measured in watts per square meter. Energy balance meaning the system of energy entering and leaving the earth system.

45
Q

Where do Greenhouse gases come from?

A

Nitrous oxide, methane = agriculture

Land use change, resource extraction

46
Q

Observed Changes

A

More than ½ of increase temps is caused by humans
Hockey stick curve on graph- temp on earth as increased drastically due to human existence
Data collected from isotopes, tree cores and pollen to measure climate thousands of years ago
Antarctic ice decrease which will cause massive sea level rise
Decrease in permafrost
Decrease non polar glaciers
Increase in extreme weather events

47
Q

Predicted Changes

A

2.5 increase: Strong mitigation- peak and decrease
4.5 increase: Weak mitigation- stabilization around 2100
6.5 increase: Efficient mitigation- stabilization after 2100
8.5 increase: No mitigation- no stabilization
Sea level rise
Melting permafrost
More frequent warming spells, heat waves, and heavy rainfall
Increase in droughts
Stronger extreme weather events

48
Q

Relationship between forest cover and (local) climate:

A 
Decreases albedo
Increases heat absorption
Increases latent heat loss
Increases humidity and precipitation
Decreases solar radiation
49
Q

Water Stress

A

% of available fresh water withdrawn from aquifer > 25%/year
Scarcity
Physical (not enough rain, pollution, deforestation preventing recharge areas)
Economical (costs, too cheap/too expensive - wasting, not enough infrastructure, time to get water)
Institutional (allocation/government/municipalities/etc)

50
Q

Water Situation of Costa Rica

A

Not great
Water stress —- withdrawing 13% but also contamination 20% = 33%
Scarcity
1) Institutional
2) Economic
3) Physical (CR has 4x as much water as average)

51
Q

Underlying Problems of Water Scarcity

A

Lack of information/education
Not paying the real price for the water used — also poverty
Too many institutions, unclear responsibilities
Urban sprawl/overpopulation
Tourism has increased by a crazy amount
1942 water law!!!
Problems are Institutional > economic > physical

52
Q

Supply Problems

A

Inefficient Infrastructure (Sanitation Sites, water pipes, tanks)
Water Shortages + Overuse
Pollution: Agrochemicals
Health Hazards

53
Q

Sanitation Problems

A

Pollution of streams and aquifers
Waste goes to septic tank (70%) –> Seeps into aquifer
30% to open waterways
less than 10% is treated

54
Q

Solid/ Other Problems

A

Flooding
Contamination of streams
Collection problems for waste +increased waste

55
Q

Solutions

A

Integrated Water Resource Management
Privatize Waste Collection
Bottom-up approaches

56
Q

Integrated Water Resource Management

A

It is a Management strategy that maximizes social and economic benefits while including a wide variety of stakeholders
4 Principles:
Water is finite and Vulnerable
Stakeholder participation
Strengthen role of women
Recognize social and economic value of water
Integration of economic efficiency, social equity, and economic sustainability

57
Q

Institutions and Stakeholders

A 
MINAE
AYA ( Water supply and sanitation) (Maintenance of infrastrcuture) 
ICE (Electric company, hydropower)
Ministry of Health ( Sets Standards) 
Municipalities (local level)
Residents
NGOs
Businesses
58
Q

Limitations?

A

Conflicting Interests
MINAE (Only 1 institution, needs to be held accountable)
Water is a public good
new legislation

59
Q

Tarcoles River: How was IWRM implemented?

A

Executive decree passed: Formed Tarcoles River Basin Comission
- Collaborative: Gathered multiple stakeholders ((MINAE, all municipalities, community, ministry of health, agriculture (dairy and coffee))
‘94 to ‘98 Success: Extended river cleanup, reforestation, international aid
-90% of coffee industry cleaned up
‘99 Collapsed: New president, gov’t changed → Lobbying from agriculture
2001: No activity
Still delayed

60
Q

Lessons to be learned

A

Need a legal backbone, integration of top-down and bottom-up approaches, accountability, need data, clear mission and mandate, need to speed things up, need different funding sources, charge for environmental services, too many conflicting interests
Strengths: Community Participation, can compromise → So plans can be made.

Rio Tarcoles is a huge river whose watershed supplies water to most populated areas of Costa Rica; upper Tarcoles is highly urbanized–impervious surface increases flooding and pollution from trash); The commission to clean up Rio Tarcoles initially made lots of progress– coffee growers stopped disposing of pulp into the river, for example– because the project effectively brought together all of the important stakeholders; the local community was effectively mobilized and helped clean up their river, but in 1999 the project basically collapsed because of a change in government and a resulting change in the leadership of the commission

61
Q

Reventazon River

A

ICE has special interests (Need to keep river clean for hydropower)
Commission put in charge to clean river: Management plan → Reforestation, agroforestry, biodigesters good for irrigation agriculture, tourism, work with municipality for urban planning

The Reventazon river project succeeded mostly; there is less urban development but it was still experiencing lots of urban/agricultural pollution. The cleanup effort was incentivized by the placement of major hydroelectric dams, so cleaning the river became the most economically viable action (it’s expensive to clean trash out of dams)

62
Q

Trade Liberalization

A

2009 CAFTA
2013 EU emphasis on sustainable development
Removal or reduction of tariffs on the exchange of goods between nations
30% of world economy is external

63
Q

Scale Effects on Environment

A 
Deforestation
More pollution
-Strains on water quality
Fisheries decline
Soil Degradation

The exacerbation of resource extraction due to bigger global economy negatively affects the environment

64
Q

Income Effects

A

Environmental Kuznets Curve
-As wealth increases, environmnetal impact decreases
Diversification of Diets ( Increase access to food from faraway places)
Winners and Losers

65
Q

Tech/ Product Effects

A

Environmnental Friendly

  • Efficient Technology used (positive: efficiency can be cleaner/less resource intensive; negative: “rebound effect”, where more efficient production processes can reduce the price of products ->they’re consumed in greater quantities, which ends up polluting more overall)
  • renewable energy
66
Q

Composition or Structural

A

Comparative advantage of a country; mostly, consider from the perspective of a developing country, and how their economy is shifting as it becomes more entangled with the global economy;
Specialization Trap: developing countries’ economies usually specialize in natural resource extraction/agriculture, and they have an especially difficult time changing their
E.g. Pollution Haven Hypothesis (negative; countries may purposefully enact lax environmentalenvironmental standards in order to bolster economic growth by attracting polluting industries)
Tourism (either, depending on the type of tourism)

67
Q

Regalutary Effects

A

Protections for investors emphasized–the WTO tends to try to remove obstacles to free trade; consider how new regulations passed in a country cannot impede free trade; companies can sue national governments under laws set by the World Bank if national governments try to pass laws that impede trade
The point is that countries that sign free trade agreements lose their autonomy in a fundamental way
Any purposeful policy changes that are meant to attract industry (probably negative; an extreme and probably not-real example is the “race to the bottom” phenomenon)

68
Q

What makes a developing country vunerable to environmnetal degadation?

A 
Dependent on resource extraction
No current environmental laws/ protection
Weak institutions, corrupt government
Perverse Incentives
Smaller Economies
69
Q

How can we reap benefits w/o trashing / what can they do?

A

Need to have a diversified economy

Externalities need to be taken into account

70
Q

Greenhouse Effect

A

Warming of the Earth’s atmosphere that occurs when the sun’s radiation passes through the atmosphere, is absorbed by the earth, and is given off as radiation of longer wavelengths (Temperature determines wavelengths- high temperature implies that the solar radiation leaving the sun contains a lot of energy and has a short wavelength) which can be absorbed by certain atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide (long residence time) and water vapor (short residence time- 10 days).

71
Q

Albedo

A

Albedo: high reflectivity
Ice has a high albedo- the reflectivity of a material. It reflects sunlight back into space much more effectively than grass, dirt, or water, and one reason polar regions are as cold as they are is that snow and ice are very effective in reflecting solar radiation back into space. But if snow starts to melt and bare ground (or water) is expose, the reflection effect diminishes. Less ice, means less reflection, which means more solar heat is absorbed, leading to yet more melting in a positive feedback loop

72
Q

Nitrogen Cycling

A

Air consists pf 78% Nitrogen (Plants can only take up aluminum and nitrate)

Biological Fixation:
Plants fix nitrogen from air –> dies, creates crop residue –> microorganisms in soil decompose crop or animal wase–> becomes organic matter –> mineralized to ammonium(NH4) –> Nitrification occurs ( Ammonium to nitrate) –> Crop uptakes –> Denitrification ( Nitrate to Nitrogen or Nitrous oxide)

Chemical fixation ( added by fertilizers)

NRM Midtem (1 decks)

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