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Biology > Organisation > Flashcards

Organisation Flashcards

1
Q

What are similar cells organised into

A

Tissues

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2
Q

What is the process of unspecialised cells becoming specialised

A

Differentation

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3
Q

What are tissues organised into

A

Organs

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4
Q

What are organs organised into

A

Organ systems

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5
Q

What is an organ

A

A group of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function

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6
Q

What is an organ system

A

A group of different organs that work together to perform a specific function

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7
Q

What are enzymes

A

A catalyst produced by living things (biological catalysts)

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8
Q

What is a catalyst

A

A substance which increases a speed of a reaction without being changed or used up in the reaction

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9
Q

Describe the shape of enzymes

A

A lock and key. With an active site that has a specific shape that will fit the substrate

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10
Q

How do enzymes work

A

The correct substrate must match with the correct active site otherwise the reaction won’t be catalysed

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11
Q

What conditions do enzymes need to work properly

A

The right temperature and pH

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12
Q

What happens to the enzyme if it gets too hot

A

It denatures - the shape of the active site changes meaning the substrate can no long fit

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13
Q

What happens to enzymes if the pH is too high or too low

A

It denatures - the shape of the active site changes meaning the substrate can no long fit

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14
Q

What’s the calculation for rate of reaction

A

1000 / time

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15
Q

What do digestive enzymes do

A

Break down big molecules

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16
Q

Why do digestive enzymes need to break down big molecules

A

Because otherwise they’re too big to pass through the walls of the digestive system, allowing them to be absorbed into the bloodstream

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17
Q

What do amylase convert carbohydrates into

A

Simple sugars

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18
Q

What do protease convert proteins into

A

Amino acids

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19
Q

What do lipase convert lipids into

A

Glycerol and fatty acid

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20
Q

Where is amylase made

A

-Salivary glands
-Pancreas
-Small intestines

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21
Q

Where is protease made

A

-Stomach
-Pancreas
-Small intestines

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22
Q

Where is lipase made

A

-Pancreas
-Small intestines

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23
Q

What does bile do

A

Neutralises stomach acids and emulsifies fats

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24
Q

Where is bile produces

A

The liver

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25
Q

Where is bile stored

A

Gall bladder

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26
Q

Why is bile used

A

The hydrochloric acid in the stomach is too acidic for enzymes to work in the small intestines properly. Bile is an alkaline so neutralises the acid to make it more alkaline which the enzymes work best in

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27
Q

Is bile an acid or alkaline

A

Alkaline

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28
Q

Why does bile emulsify fat

A

Breaks down fat into tiny droplets giving it a much bigger surface area for the lipase to work on - this makes digestion faster

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29
Q

What test tests for sugars

A

Benedict’s test

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30
Q

How do you do the benedict’s test

A

1) Prepare a food sample and transfer 5cm cubed to a test tube
2) Prepare a water bath at 75 degrees celcius
3) Add some benedicts solution to the test tube using a pipette
4) Place the test tube in the water bath using a test tube holder and leave it in there for 5 minutes. Make sure it is pointing away from you
5) If the food sample contains a reducing sugar, the solution will turn the normal blue colour to green, yellow or brick-red (it depends on how much sugar is in the food)

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31
Q

What test tests for starch

A

The iodine test

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32
Q

How do you do the iodine test

A

1) Make a food sample and transfer 5cm cubed of your sample to a test tube.
2) Then add a few drops of iodine solution and gently shake the tube to mix the contents. If the sample contains starch, the colour of the solution will change from browny-orange to black or blue-black

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33
Q

What tests for proteins

A

The biuret test

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34
Q

How do you do the biuret test

A

1) Prepare a sample of food and transfer 2cm cubed of your sample to a test tube
2) Add 2cm cubed of biuret solution to the sample and mix the contents of the tube by gently shaking it
3) If the food sample contains protein, the solution will change from blue to purple. If no protein is present, the solution will stay blue

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35
Q

What tests for lipids

A

The sudan test 3

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36
Q

How do you do the sudan test 3

A

1) Prepare a sample of the food you’re testing (but you don’t need to filter it). Transfer about 5cm cubed into a test tube.
2) Use a pipette to add 3 drops of Sudan 3 stain solution to the test tube and gently shake the tube.
3) Sudan 3 stain solution stains lipids. If the sample contains lipids, the mixture will separate into two layers. The top layer will be bright red. If no lipids are present, no separate red layer will form at the top of the liquid.

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37
Q

What does the heart do

A

It’s a double pump that pumps blood both to the lungs and the rest of the body

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38
Q

Name the 4 chamber of the heart

A

-Right atrium, right ventricle
-Left atrium, left ventricle

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39
Q

Name the 4 blood vessels

A

-Vena cava, pulmonary artery
-Pulmonary vein, aorta

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40
Q

What is the hearts pacemaker and what does it do

A

It controls the heart rate by a group of cells on the right atrium wall. The cells produce small electric impulses which spreads to the muscle cells, causing them to contract

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41
Q

How can an irregular heart rate be treated

A

Through an artificial pacemaker that produces an electric current to keep the heart beating regularly.

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42
Q

What are the 3 types of blood vessels and their functions

A

-Arteries: carry blood away from the heart
-Capillaries: are involved in the exchange of materials at the tissues
-Veins: carry blood to the heart

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43
Q

How are arteries specifically designed for their function

A

-The heart pumps at a high pressure so the artery walls are STRONG and ELASTIC
-The walls are THICK compared to the size of the whole down the middle (lumen)
-They contain thick layers of MUSCLE to make them STRONG and ELASTIC FIBRES to allow them to stretch and spring back

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44
Q

How are capillaries specifically designed for their functions

A

-They have a wall of one cell thick that’s permeable to allow diffusion to happen quicker and easier
-They carry blood really close to every cell to exchange substances with them

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45
Q

How are veins specifically designed for their functions

A

-The blood is at a lower pressure than in the veins so the walls aren’t as thick as artery walls
-They have a bigger lumen than arteries to help with blood flow
-They also have valves to help keep the blood flowing in the right direction

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46
Q

How do you calculate the rate of blood flow

A

rate of blood flow = volume of blood / number of minutes

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47
Q

What do red blood cells do

A

Carry oxygen

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48
Q

How are red blood cells specifically designed to carry oxygen

A

-They have a shape of biconcave disc (like a dougnut) that gives them a large surface area for absorbing oxygen
-Don’t have a nucleus so can carry more oxygen
-Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin that allows oxygen to bind to the cells

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49
Q

What do white blood cells do

A

Defend against infection

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50
Q

How are white blood cells specifically designed to defend against infection

A

-Can change shape to engulf unwanted micro-organisms in a process called phagocytosis
-Some produce antibodies to fight micro-organisms as well as antitoxins to neutralise any toxins produced by the micro-organisms
-Unlike red blood cells they do have a nucleus

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51
Q

What do platelets do

A

Help blood clot

52
Q

How are platelets specifically designed to help blood clot

A

-They are small fragments of cells that have no nucleus.
-They help the blood to clot at a wound - to stop all the blood pouring out and to stop micro-organisms getting in
-Lack of platelets can cause excessive bleeding and bruising

53
Q

What’s the name of the illness where your body does not produce enough platelets

A

Haemophilia

54
Q

What does plasma do

A

A liquid that carries everything in blood

55
Q

What does plasma carry

A

-Red and white blood cells and platelets
-Nutrients like glucose and amino acids
-Carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungs
-Urea from the liver to the kidneys
-Hormones
-Proteins
-Antibodies and antitoxins produced by white blood cells

56
Q

What is coronary heart disease

A

When the coronary arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart get blocked by layers of fatty material building up. This causes the arteries to become narrow, so the blood flow is restricted and there’s a lack of oxygen to the heart muscle - this can result in a heart attack.

57
Q

What are 2 ways to treat coronary heart disease

A

Statins or stents

58
Q

What do stents do

A

Keep the arteries open

59
Q

How do stents keep the arteries open

A

They are mesh wired tubes that are inserted into the inside of the arteries. They keep them open to allow blood to flow through to the heart muscles.

60
Q

What are the advantages of stents

A

-Good way of lowering the risk of a heart attack for someone with coronary heart disease
-They are effective for a long time
-Recovery time from the surgery is relatively quick

61
Q

What are the disadvantages of stents

A

-They are invasive (surgery)
-There can be complications from the surgery: there’s a risk of infection or even the risk of developing a blood clot near the stent (thrombosis)

62
Q

What do statins do

A

Reduce cholesterol in the blood

63
Q

How do statins work

A

They are drugs that help reduce the amount of bad cholesterol in the bloodstream. This helps slow down the rate of fatty deposits forming

64
Q

What are the advantages of statins

A

-Can also help reduce the risks of coronary heart disease, strokes and heart attacks
-Can increase the amount of good cholesterol
-Some studies suggest they can help prevent other disease as well
-No surgery/ not invasive so no risks of complications

65
Q

What are the disadvantages of statins

A

-They are long time drugs that have to be taken regularly
-People can forget to take them
-Can have negative side effects that may be worse than coronary heart disease in the first place
-The effect of statins isn’t instant, it takes time to have an effect

66
Q

How can faulty or leaky valves be treated

A

By replacing them with artificial or biological valves

67
Q

What are the advantages of biological valves

A

-No clicking sound
-Less risk of clots so long-term anti-coagulant medicine isn’t needed

68
Q

What are the disadvantages of biological valves

A

-Have a shorter life-span of around 8-10 years
-Can have religious/ ethical problems

69
Q

What are the advantages of mechanical valves

A

-Have a longer-life span of around 20 years so are better for younger people needing a valve replacement
-Cause not religious problems

70
Q

What are the disadvantages of mechanical valves

A

-Higher chance of blood clots so long-term use of anti-coagulant medicine is necessary
-Can sometimes make a clicking sound

71
Q

What are the 2 types of diseases

A

Communicable and non-communicable

72
Q

What are communicable diseases

A

Disease that can be spread from person to person or between animals and people

73
Q

What can cause communicable diseases

A

-Bacteria
-Viruses
-Parasites
-Fungi

74
Q

What are non-communicable diseases

A

Disease that can not be spread from between people to people or between animals and people. They are usually life-long or last for a very long time and can get worse over time

75
Q

What other factors can effect your general health

A

-Poor diets
-Stress
-Your life situation

76
Q

What factors can increase your risk of non-communicable diseases

A

-Smoking
-Obesity
-Too much alcohol consumption
-Exposure to certain substances or radiation

77
Q

How is cancer caused

A

Uncontrolled cell growth and division

78
Q

What do cancers cause

A

Cause the formations of tumours (a mass of cells)

79
Q

What are the two types of tumours

A

Benign and malignant

80
Q

What are benign tumours

A
  • Where the tumour grows until there’s no more room
    -The tumour usually stays in one place
    -They aren’t usually dangerous
    -They are not cancerous
81
Q

What are malignant tumours

A

-When the tumour grows and spreads to neighbouring healthy tissues
-Cells can break off and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream
-The malignant cells than invade healthy tissues elsewhere in the body and form secondary tumours
-Malignant tumours are dangerous and can be fatal
-They are cancerous

82
Q

What are the lifestyle risk factors of cancer

A

-Smoking
-Obesity
-UV exposure
-Viral infection (unprotected sex or sharing needles)

83
Q

What are the genetics risk factors of cancer

A

-Inheriting faulty genes that can make you more susceptible to cancer
-Family history of specific cancers

84
Q

How are plant cells organised

A

By tissues and organs

85
Q

What are the plant tissues

A

-Epidermal tissue
-Palisade mesophyll tissue
-Spongy mesophyll tissue
-Xylem and phloem
-Meristem tissue

86
Q

Where is epidermal tissue found

A

Covers the whole plant

87
Q

Where is palisade mesophyll tissue found and what does it do

A

Part of the leaf where photosynthesis happens

88
Q

Where is spongy mesophyll tissue found and what does it do

A

Part of the leaf that contains big air spaces to allow gases to diffuse in and out of cells

89
Q

Where are the xylem and phloem found and what do they do

A

Transport things like water, mineral ions and food around the plant through the roots, stems and leaves

90
Q

Where is meristem tissue found and what does it do

A

Found at the growing tips of shoots and roots and is able to differentiate into lots of different types of plant cells allowing the plant to grow

91
Q

What are the tissues found on the leaf

A

-Epidermal tissues
-Upper epidermis
-Palisade layer
-Xylem and phloem

92
Q

How is the epidermal tissue specialised for it’s function

A

They are covered with a waxy cuticle which helps them reduce water loss by evaporation

93
Q

How is the upper epidermis specialised for it’s function

A

It’s transparent so that light can pass through into the palisade layer

94
Q

How is the palisade layer specialised for it’s function

A

It has loads of chloroplasts to help with photosynthesis. This means that they’re near the top of the leaf where they can get the most light

95
Q

How is the phloem and xylem specialised for their function

A

They form a network of vascular bundles which deliver water and other nutrients to the entire leaf and take away glucose produced by photosynthesis. They also help support the structure.

96
Q

How is the lower epidermis specialised for it’s function

A

It’s full of little hole called stomata which let CO2 diffuse directly into the leaf

97
Q

How is the spongy mesphyll specialised for it’s function

A

Have loads of air spaces in that increase the rate of diffusion of gases

98
Q

What is the guard cells job

A

To control the opening and closing if the stomata depending on the environmental condition

99
Q

What does the phloem transport

A

Food substances made in the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or for storage

100
Q

How’s the phloem made

A

Made of elongated living cells with small pores in the end walls to allow cell sap to flow through

101
Q

What direction of transport is used in the phloem

A

Both direction

102
Q

What is the name of the process in the phloem

A

Translocation

103
Q

What does the xylem transport

A

Water and mineral ions from the roots to the stem and leaves

104
Q

How’s the xylem made

A

Made of dead cells joined end to end with no end walls between them and a hole down the middle. They’re strengthened with a material called lignin.

105
Q

What direction of transport is used in the xylem

A

One way

106
Q

What is the name of the process in the xylem

A

Transpiration

107
Q

What is the process of transpiration

A

The movement of water from the roots, through the xylem and out of the leaves

108
Q

What is transpiration caused by

A

Evaporation and diffusion of water from a plants surface

109
Q

Why is there a constant transpiration stream of water through a plant

A

The evaporation creates a slight shortage of water in the leaf, and so more water is drawn up from the rest of the plant through the xylem vessels to replace it. This in turn means more water is drawn up from the roots.

110
Q

What factors effect transpiration rate

A

-Light intensity
-Temperature
-Air flow
-Humidity

111
Q

How does the light intensity effect the respiration rate

A

-The brighter the light, the greater the transpiration rate
-The stomata begins to close when it gets dark. Photosynthesis can’t happen in the dark, so they don’t need to open to let CO2 in. When the stomata are close, very little water can escape

112
Q

How does the temperature effect the respiration rate

A

-The warmer it is, the faster transpiration happens
-When it’s warm the water particles have more energy to evaporate and diffuse out of the stomata

113
Q

How does the air-flow effect the respiration rate

A

-The better the air flow is around a leaf the greater the transpiration rate
-If there’s good air flow the water vapour is swept away maintaining a low concentration of water in the air outside the leaf. Diffusion then happens quickly from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration

114
Q

How does the humidity effect the respiration rate

A

-The drier the air around a leaf, the faster transpiration happens
-Diffusion happens fast if there’s a really high concentration in one place and a really low concentration in the other

115
Q

What can be used to estimate the transpiration rate

A

A potometer

116
Q

How can you estimate the the rate of transpiration

A

By measuring the uptake of water. This is because you can assume the water uptake by the plant is directly related to water by leaves (transpiration)

117
Q

How are guard cells adapted to open and close stomata

A

-Have a kidney shape which opens and closes the stomata in a leaf
-Thin outer walls and thickened inner walls make the opening and closing work
-They are sensitive to light

118
Q

What happens to the guard cells when the plant has lots of water

A

The guard cells fill with it and go plump and turgid. This makes the stomata open so gases can be exchanged for photosynthesis.

119
Q

What happens to the guard cells when the plant is short of water

A

The guard cells lose water and become flaccid making the stomata close. This helps stop too much vapour escaping

120
Q

Why are guard cells sensitive to light

A

So they can close at night to save water without losing out on photosynthesis

121
Q

Where do you usually find more stomata. Why

A

On the undersides of the leaves than on the top. The lower surface is shaded and cooler - so less water is lost through the stomata than if they were on the upper surface

122
Q

What do the alveolis do

A

Carry out gas exchange in the body

123
Q

How do the alveolis work

A
  • Oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli into the blood.
    -Carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli out of the blood to be breathed out
124
Q

How do you work out the breaths per minute

A

breaths per minute = number of breaths / number of minutes

125
Q

Where are the lungs located in your body

A

The thorax

126
Q

What’s the order of air through the lungs

A

1) Down the trachea
2) Through one of the 2 bronchi
3) Through the bronchioles
4) Into the alveoli

Biology (4 decks)

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