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Paper 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Aspects of reliability

A
  • Interrater
  • Internal consistency
  • Test-retest
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2
Q

Validity

A

External
- population validity
- Ecological validity

Internal
Construct

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3
Q

Population validity

A

How easily can the sample used be generalized to a population?

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4
Q

Ecological validity

A

How much does the external environment affect the results of the study? (Or behaviour of participants)

  • mundane realism
  • can the study be generalized to other studies?
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5
Q

Internal validity

A

Is there direct relationship between the IV and DV, or are they influenced by other factors?

Can be controlled by control variables, extraneous, confounding variables

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6
Q

Construct validity

A

Is the test/study accurately measuring the variable/what they say they are measuring?

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7
Q

Demand characteristics

A
  • expectancy effect
  • screw you effect
  • social desirability effect
  • reactivity
  • optimum bias
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8
Q

Expectancy effect

A

Participant guesses what the aim of the study is and attempts to “help” the researcher by behaving/responding in accordance to what they think the hypothesis is

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9
Q

Screw you effect

A

Participants guesses what the aim of the study is and attempts to act in a way that opposes to what they think the hypothesis is (to impact credibility of the study negativity).

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10
Q

Social desirability

A

Participants answer questions in a way to avoid embarrassment or judgement to look better to the researcher.

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11
Q

Reactivity

A

Participants act differently because of the awareness that they are being observed

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12
Q

Optimum bias

A

A tendency to overestimate likelihood of having positive experiences and underestimate likelihood of having negative experiences

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13
Q

Lab experiment

A

An experiment done in a highly controlled environment
IV is manipulated and DV is measured

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14
Q

Field experiment

A

Experiment done in a natural setting. IV still manipulated, therefore a field experiment is still a real experiment. Has less controlled environment.

Imply casual relationship btwn IV and DV.

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15
Q

True experiment

A

IV is manipulated and DV is measured under controlled conditions. Participants randomly allocated.

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16
Q

Quasi experiment

A

IV is not manipulated. Participants separated by pre-existing traits (this is IV. For example, a fish seller, jeweller.. etc.)

Imply casual relationship btwn IV and DV.

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17
Q

Natural experiment

A

Subset of quasi experiment. DV measured from naturally occurring events, for example, observing stress levels of students after the introduction of IB.

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18
Q

Extraneous variable

A

Any variable that is not being observed that may also affect the experiment

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19
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Participants selected based on naturally occurring groups. For example, a classroom of students may be selected for a study.
(Unit 1 vocab doc)

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20
Q

Random sampling

A

Participants have an equal chance of being selected.

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21
Q

Self selected sampling/volunteer sample

A

Participants volunteer to partake in a study, most likely from seeing an advertisement.

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22
Q

Snowball sampling

A

Participants recruit other participants for a study
(Doc)

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23
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Groups of participants are randomly selected corresponding to the distribution of a population.

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24
Q

Purposive sampling

A

Targets a specific group of people, when the desired sample is difficult to find and recruit.

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25
Q

Haphazard sampling

A

Not random or systematic. Is a biased way to sample.

Sampling in a public space, participants are chosen. E.g. going to a mall and selecting people to sample.

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26
Q

Deductive qualitative observations

A

Observations are structured, from a pre-selected list.

E.g. choosing to observe how friendly a person is.. rather than simply observing

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27
Q

Inductive observations

A

Not having selected/structured observations beforehand

28
Q

Repeated measures design

A

Participants are asked to do experiment twice with different variables/conditions,
for example, memorizing a list of words with music, then without music.

29
Q

Order effect

A

Participants become
- bored
- fatigued from the activities
- improve at the activity from practicing the task over and over again
- interference effect: when previous task/responses interfere with second task (e.g. cakes of deception: taste of previous cake may interfere with taste of second cake)

30
Q

Independent samples

A

Participants randomly assigned to tasks, tasks are done once for each participant. Participants are compared to each other.

31
Q

Control variables

A

variables that are kept constant so that they do not influence the relationship between the IV and DV

32
Q

Interrater (reliability)

A

the extent of consistency to which different judges agree in their assessment decisions

33
Q

Internal consistency (reliability)

A

How consistent people’s responses are on a multiple-item measure
(e.g. a questionnaire asking similar questions, such as: asking if an individual agrees with the statements “I feel confident in completing tasks.”, then “I have confidence in my abilities to complete tasks.”)

34
Q

test-retest (reliability)

A

stability of the scores obtained from the same person on two or more separate occasions.
(individual is compared to themselves to test reliability)

35
Q

researcher bias

A

Researcher consciously or unconsciously sees what they are searching for.

36
Q

How is researcher bias countered/prevented?

A

prevented by using a double-blind control: person carrying out study is unaware of the aim of the study

37
Q

participant variability

A

characteristics of the sample group affect the DV.

Can be prevented by selecting random sample, then randomly allocating the participants to the treatment and control groups (doc)

38
Q

How can the order effect be reduced/prevented?

A

can be reduced by counter-balancing (half of participants start with condition A, the condition B, other half start with condition B then end with condition A)
- more likely to have demand effects

39
Q

Pros of repeated measures

A

Pros:
Participant variables reduced:
- participants compared to themselves: participant variability
- fewer participants needed

40
Q

Cons of repeated measures

A

Cons:
- order effect
- more materials, prep may be necessary
- more likely for demand effects
- attrition (tasks become less effective at measuring what need to be measured)

41
Q

Pros of independent samples

A

Pros:
- order effects more controlled
- less likely for demand effects
- same materials used

42
Q

Cons of independent samples

A

Cons:
- participant variability
- need more participants

43
Q

Matched pairs

A

Participants tested before study begins, separated into categories, then participants randomly allocated to any condition. Each condition has a good range of participants

e.g. participants given memory test, weakest performing participants are randomly allocated, then middle performing are randomly allocated, then strongest performing.

44
Q

TEACUP (for analyzing a theory)

A

T - testable?
E - evidence?
A - applied?
C - construct validity?
U - unbiased?
P - predictive validity?

45
Q

mundane realism (ecological validity)

A

how well does the study imitate real life situations?

46
Q

Types of triangulation

A
  • data triangulation: data collected for different sources, for example, from a student and then their parent
  • method triangulation: data collected using different methods, such as quantitative and qualitative methods
  • theory triangulation: data is looked at with different theoretical approaches
  • researcher triangulation: several researchers participate in data collection
47
Q

How to ensure credibility in qualitative research:

A
  • member checking: checking with participants to ensure that they agree with the interpretation of the researcher
  • triangulation
  • researcher credibility: is the researcher experienced? Trained? Planned ahead?

(Note: credibility will only be discussed in relation to qualitative research)

48
Q

Generalization in qualitative research (transferability)

A
  • representational generalization: results can be applied to population which sample was drawn from
  • inferential generalization: results can be generalized to populations in settings outside of sample population, for example, results from study with sample from the gym can be applied to other gyms (also called transferability)
  • theoretical generalization: theoretical concepts can be used to develop further theory
49
Q

Sampling methods of qualitative research

A
  • purposive sampling through volunteer, opportunity or snowball sampling
  • purposive sampling suffers from sampling bias
50
Q

Types of Interviews (qual)

A
  • either structured, unstructured, semi-structured or a focus group
  • structured: somewhat artificial, questions are stated, highly standardized
  • unstructured: (themes or topics rather than actual preset questions) more ecological validity, more data can be collected as interviewee reveals more about themselves, social desirability bias, more training is required
  • semi-structured: includes open-ended questions that permit respondent to answer more freely, while still having structure to the interview, also includes closed-ended questions, researcher can deviate from questions, prone to social desirability bias, rich data
  • focus group: 8-12 people, interview in groups, allows people to prompt one another, save time, social desirability may be an issue
51
Q

Inductive content analysis

A

Reread transcripts for interviews, notes for observations

identification of:
- key themes
-concepts
- categories

Interpretation of data based on themes

52
Q

Types of Observations

A
  • naturalistic, lab observation
  • overt or covert observation
  • participant or non-participant observations

Limitations:
- hard to record everything
- researcher bias
- participant reactivity

To overcome limitations:
- researcher triangulation
- focus groups

53
Q

Deductive obersvations

A
  • structured
  • pre-set checklist
54
Q

Inductive observations

A
  • not structured, no preset checklist
55
Q

Surveys vs. Questionnaires

A

Surveys are less open ended while questionnaires are more open ended

56
Q

Case study strengths

A
  • holistic
  • high ecological validity
  • can study change over time
57
Q

Case study limitations

A
  • hard to replicate (or cannot be replicated)
  • often retrospective, lacks data on individual before the accident/event/start of symptoms
  • time consuming and requires full training of team
58
Q

Interviews strengths

A
  • ecologically valid (structured interviews are less so, less natural)
  • personal, can obtain large amount of data
  • focus groups can prompt other members
59
Q

Interview limitations

A
  • memory distortion, data is self-reported, cannot be verified
  • optimism bias or social desirability effect
  • difficult to keep confidentiality in focus groups
  • researcher bias impacts types of questions asked and interpretation of answers
  • time consuming
60
Q

Covert, naturalistic participant observations strengths

A
  • low in demand characteristics
  • high in ecological validity
  • researchers get more “inside information” through interaction with participants
61
Q

Covert, naturalistic observations limitations

A
  • less ethical because of deception
  • lacks control over environment, confounding variables (variable which affects both dependent and independent variable
  • difficult to replicate
  • researcher may unintentionally influence behaviour
62
Q

Overt non-participant lab observations strengths

A
  • lower in researcher bias, researcher not part of the group
  • more controlled environment
  • easily replicable
63
Q

Overt non-participant lab observations limitations

A
  • open to demand characteristics: participants know they are being observed
  • lower in ecological validity
  • researcher is detached from participants and may not understand the choice of behaviour, potential objectification of participants
64
Q

Generalizability in quantitative research (external validity)

A
  • population validity: representative? size?
  • ecological validity
65
Q

When can we determine causality?

A
  • IV is manipulated
  • participants are randomly allocated
  • high level of control over external variables
66
Q

Research methods

A
  1. Experiment (quantitative)
    - true
    - quasi
    - natural
    - field
  2. Observational (quantitative and qualitative “field notes”)
    - naturalistic: covert/overt, participant/non-participant
  3. Interview (qualitative)
    - structured
    - semi-structured
    - unstructured
    - focus group
  4. Correlational study
  5. Case study

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