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perception exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

functions of color

A

-help us classify and identify objects
-facilitates the perceptual organization of elements into objects
-evolutionary advantage for foraging food
-enhances contrast (helps recognize scenes)
-help us perceive emotions (yellow = happy)

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2
Q

origins of color

A
  • ## evolutionary: began as a way to identify good fruit
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3
Q

Newton’s ideas on color

A

1960’s: thoughts white light was made up of all different colored light
-discovered that different colored light has different physical properties & bends at different angles
-also, individual colors do not split up so not made of other colors
-different physical properties = our perception of color

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4
Q

light as wavelengths

A

-our perception of color depends on the wavelength of light that reaches our eyes
-visible light is differently colored waves
450-490 nm = blue
500-575 = green
575-590 = yellow
590=620 = orange
620-700 = red

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5
Q

reflectance and transmission

A

-the colors of objects are largely determined by the wavelength of light that are reflected from the objects

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6
Q

reflectance curves

A

charts that have 2 axes (wavelength on x, reflectance % on y)
-chart how color’s reflectance changes as the wavelength of light changes

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7
Q

selective reflection

A

when an object reflects some wavelengths of the spectrum more than others

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8
Q

achromatic and chromatic colors

A

chromatic = colors with hue, such as yellow, blue, red or green (occurs when some wavelengths are reflected more than others)
achromatic = light is reflected equally across the spectrum (grey, white and black)

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9
Q

additive color mixing

A

-ex: light
mixing light causes more wavelengths to be reflected (each light adds wavelengths to the mixture)
mixing multiple colors in additive = white light because all are reflected

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10
Q

subtractive color mixing

A

-ex: paint, playdough, water
both objects still absorb the same wavelengths
the only wavelengths reflects are those reflected by both objects
-most paints reflect a band of wavelengths. it paints didn’t reflect a range of wavelengths, then many of the color-mixing effects of paints that we take for granted would not occur

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11
Q

hue - perceptual dimension of color

A

-chromatic colors
-what color we see
ex: red, green, yellow, blue

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12
Q

saturation - perceptual dimension of color

A

-intensity of a color
-more white = less saturation
-desaturation = washed out

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13
Q

value - perceptual dimension of color

A

-lightness of a color
-darker color = less value

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14
Q

Munsell Color System

A

a chart that includes the 5 primary hues (red, yellow, green, blue, and purple), and charts the hue, saturation, and value
-hue is around the wheel in a circle
-saturation is from the core/inside of the wheel out
-value is bottom to top

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15
Q

trichromacy of color vision - cone spectral sensitivity

A

Young-Hemholtz theory: color vision is based on 3 principle colors, and combinations of these colors; we have 3 different receptor mechanisms (3 types of cones but only 1 type of rod)
Each type of cone/receptor mechanism have different spectral sensitivities
respond to short, medium, or long wavelengths

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16
Q

opponent process theory of color vision

A

-the aspects of our color perception are difficult to explain by the trichromatic theory alone
-a theory proposed by Herring that states we have two types of color opponent cells: red-green opponent cells & blue-yellow opponent cells
-responses oppose each other, one inhibitory and one excitatory
-opponent neurons: excitatory responses to wavelengths in one part of the spectrum and an inhibitory response to wavelengths in the other part of the spectrum
-some neurons are turned on by red but off by green
-related to afterimage effect: to account for phenomena, like complementary afterimages, Herring proposed that we have 2 types of color opponent cells
-afterimages cannot be explained by trichromatic theory alone, which is why our current understanding of color vision is a combination of the 2 theories

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17
Q

color blindness

A

-8% of men, less than 1% of women
monochromats: have no functioning cones and respond to light like black and white film
dichromats: have 2 functioning cone systems (red or green cones do not function)

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18
Q

color constancy

A

-perception of colors as relatively constant despite changing light sources
-works best when an object is surrounded by many colors
-chromatic adaptation: occurs when prolonged exposure to chromatic color leads to receptors having decreased sensitivity & we do not perceive a change in different light
-adaptation occurs to light sources leading to color constancy
-sunlight has approx. equal amounts of energy at all visible wavelengths
-tungsten lighting has more energy in the long-wavelengths
-LED light
-objects reflect different wavelengths from different sources of light
-Partial color constancy: view color to slightly change, even though wavelengths and stimuli are changing quite a bit
-Full color constancy: our perception does not change even though stimuli does

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19
Q

memory color

A

our knowledge about the typical colors of the environment
-impacts perception of color
ex: we know that a stop sign is red, so we see it as more red

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20
Q

lightness constancy

A

achromatic colors are perceived as remaining relatively constant
-perception of lightness: is not related to the amount of light reflected by an object, but is related to the percentage of light reflected by an object
The Ratio Principle: two areas that reflect different amounts of light look the same if the ratios of their intensities are the same (works when objects are evenly illuminated)

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21
Q

inverse projection problem

A

idea that a particular image on the retina could have been caused by an infinite number of different objects
-objects/stimulis can be ambiguous

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22
Q

Gibson perception for action theory

A

scientist who was tired of studying perception in the lab, he wanted to study perception in natural contexts & in action
became popular in 1980’s
-perception for action theory: perception evolved for our ability to act on and within our environment
-studying perception: studying the ways people interact with their environment

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23
Q

ecological approach to perception

A

-focuses on specifying the information in the environment that is used for perception
-emphasizing the study of moving observers
-determine how their movement results in perceptual information; creates perception and guides further movement

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24
Q

observer movement

A

optic flow = moving forward - expanding optic flow, moving backward - contracting optic flow
gradient flow = closer objects move faster, farther objects move slower, we use information based on this gradient to determine speed

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25
Q

optic flow (how is can create movement)

A

moving forward = expanding optic flow
moving backward = contracting optic flow
optic flow creates movement and provides information - using info. created by movement to guide further movement
-think of circle: car moving/movement - creates flow - object moving relative to car/flow - provides info. for guiding further movement - back to movement
-experiment by Lee and Aronson: children placed in swinging room where walls and ceiling swung backward and forward but floor was stationary. children swayed back and forth in response to the flow patterns created in the room
-vision has powerful effect on balance, and often overrides other sense that provide positive feedback about body placement and posture

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26
Q

gradient of flow

A

closer objects move faster
farther objects move slower
we use information based on this gradient to determine speed

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27
Q

focus of expansion

A

point in the distance where there is no flow
remains centered on destination/point of focus

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28
Q

hidden affordances

A

when there are possibilities for action, but these are not perceived by the actor

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29
Q

affordances

A

the information that indicates how an object can be used (offers, provides for, furnishes)
not only information of what an object is but how it can be used

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30
Q

perceptible affordances

A

when there is information available such that the actor perceives and can then act upon the existing affordance

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31
Q

action affordances

A

a response to an object that involves both its affordances (what it is for) and the action associated with it
-potential for action is part of our perception of an object

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32
Q

functional fixedness

A

the tendency to use an object in the way that it is traditionally used
-ex: use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the end of one rope. swing it towards the other rope to tie the knot

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33
Q

visual direction strategy - walking

A

observers keep their body pointed toward a target
-walkers correct when target drifts to left or right
-optic flow is not always necessary
-blind walking experiments show that people can navigate without any visual stimulation from environment

34
Q

spatial updating - walking

A

process by which people and animals keep track of their position within a surrounding environment when they move

35
Q

landmarks - wayfinding

A

wayfinding: process of navigating your environment when destination is not visible
landmarks often mark places to turn or change direction
brain repsonds to object and how object is used in navigation

36
Q

decision point landmarks - wayfinding

A

points where subject has to decide which direction to go
-more often recognized than non-decision landmarks

37
Q

cognitive maps

A

-we usually know where we are in space
-the understanding of an environment, formed through trial and error as well as observation
-based on the assumption that an individual seeks and collects contextual clues, such as environmental relationships
-we use past info, seeing/recognizing objects along a route, and paying attention to specific objects to create a cognitive map to relate what we are perceiving to where we are and how and where we are planning to go next

38
Q

grid cells

A

used in cognitive maps
1971 discovery
respond when we are in a certain place

39
Q

place cells

A

used in cognitive maps
2005 discovery (won nobel prize in 2014 for both cell discoveries)
code distance and direction

40
Q

illusory motion

A

apparent motion
-stationary stimuli are presented in slightly different location
-the basis of movement in lots of movies and tv shows

41
Q

induced motion

A

movement of 1 object results in perception of movement in another object
Ex: moon example (moon is moving, makes sky look as if its moving as well)

42
Q

motion aftereffects

A

similar to afterimages in color
-perception that a stationary object or scene moves following prolonged fixation of a moving stimulus
Ex: waterfall example from class

43
Q

the corollary discharge theory

A

theory distinguishes 3 different signals:
-image displacement signal: occurs when image moves across the retina
-motor signal: sent from the motor area to the eye muscles to cause the eye to move
-corollary discharge signal: a copy of the motor signal
movement will be perceived if the comparator receives only 1 signal
no movement will be perceived if comparator receives both signals at the same time (cancel each other out)

44
Q

point light walker stimulus (motion and the human body)

A

-biological motion: movement of person or other living organism
-biological motion is made by placing lights in specific places on a person
-structure-from-motion takes place with point-light walkers
example from class was guessing which action man was performing (man was made up of lit-up dots)
-some actions were easy to identify, but some were difficult

45
Q

corollary discharge theory & motion perception

A

move my eyes, as something moves - follow
-motor signal, no image displacement signal, so movement is perceived
something moves across my eyes
-no motor signal, image displacement signal, so movement is perceived
scan a scene - eyes move, image moves
-motor signal and image displacement signal, so no motion is detected

46
Q

perception in sports

A

-perception is important in all different sports
-there are specific mechanisms tied to specific sports
-priming
-divided/selective attention
-training
-response/reaction time
-balance
-focus (no mind wandering/DMN)
-optic flow gradient
-ex: higher batting avg. of baseball/softball player means they perceive ball to be larger than someone with poor avg

47
Q

reaction vs response time

A

Reaction time – refers to the time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the response
Response time - time it takes to process information and then to make a response

48
Q

action and body scaled affordances in sports

A

action: perception of something based on potential for action; change based on environmental context & actor capabilities
-body-scaled: capture the relationship between properties of the
environment and some (usually geometric) dimension of the body of the perceiver in determining whether an action is possible for the perceiver
-ex: relation between the height of an object and a person’s arm length determines if the object is reachable for that person
-action-scaled: capture the relationship between properties of the environment and the action capabilities of the perceiver in determining whether an action is possible for the perceiver
-ex: relationship between an object’s height and a person’s vertical force production capability determines if the object is reachable by jumping

49
Q

vision - perception in sports

A

vision is majorly important in sports
-think of example from class where baseball player needed to get contacts because he was hitting badly due to not being able to see the ball well, therefore his action of swinging was off

50
Q

perception performance loop

A

perception impacts performance, performance impacts perception - it creates a loop
performance - provides info. - perception - impacts performance - back to performance
ex: basketball players are better at predicting their shot success than anyone else because their own perceptual-motor experiences impact perception
-motor experience is necessary for perceptual-motor expertise - emphasize doing instead of watching in training

51
Q

physical definition of hearing

A

pressure changes in the air or other medium
-called :sound” or “sound stimulus”

52
Q

perceptual definition of hearing

A

the experience we have when we hear
-called “sound perception”

53
Q

sound as pressure changes

A

think of a speaker
-they produce sound through a process where the diaphragm of the speaker moves in and out to move air molecules
-moves out & causes air molecules to push together called condensation
-moves in & pulls air molecules apart called rarefaction
-cycle of this process creates alternating high- and low-pressure regions that travel throughout the air

54
Q

frequency

A

the number of times per second that pressure changes
-measured in Hertz (Hz)
-1 Hz is one cycle per second
-higher frequency = more times per second of pressure changes
-perception of pitch is related to frequency (frequency = physical, pitch = perceptual)
-tone height is the increase in pitch that happens when frequency is increased

55
Q

amplitude

A

in the case of a repeating sound wave, amplitude represents the pressure difference between atmospheric pressure and the maximum pressure of the wave
-higher amplitude = larger change in pressure = louder
-perception of amplitude is known as loudness
-decibel (dB) is measure of loudness

56
Q

pure tone

A

created by a sine wave (one with constant frequency and amplitude)

57
Q

thresholds of frequencies

A

we use equal loudness curves to assess the thresholds of frequencies (different physical stimuli, similar perceptual experience)
-a curve that indicates the sound pressure levels that result in a perception of the same loudness at frequencies across the audible spectrum
ex of thresholds:
-elephants: below 20 Hz
-dogs: above 40,000 Hz
-cats: above 50,000 Hz
-dolphins: above 150,000 H

58
Q

pitch - perceptual aspect

A

perceptual aspect of hearing
-perceive an increase in pitch as frequency increases
-we describe pitch as high and low

59
Q

loudness - perceptual aspect

A

the quality of sound that ranges from soft to loud
-for a tone of a particular frequency, loudness usually increases with increasing decibels

60
Q

timbre - perceptual aspect

A

all other perceptual aspects of a sound besides loudness, pitch, and duration
-closely related to the harmonies, attack, and decay of a tone

61
Q

attack of tones - perceptual aspect

A

buildup of sound at the beginning of a tone

62
Q

decay of tones - perceptual aspect

A

decrease in sound at the end of tones

63
Q

shepard tone

A

named after Richard Shepard
-sound consisting of a superposition of sine waves separated by octaves
-an auditory illusion of a sound that continually ascends or descends in pitch

64
Q

auditory space, auditory localization

A

we use location cues (binaural and spectral cues) to locate where a sound is coming from
-on average, people can localize sounds:
directly in front of them most accurately and to the sides and behind their heads least accurately

65
Q

location cues

A

not contained in the receptor cells like on the retina in vision - instead, location for sounds must be calculated
-include distance, azimuth, and elevation cues

66
Q

binaural cues

A

location cues based on the comparison of the signals that are received by the left and right ears (depends on both ears)

67
Q

interaural level difference

A

part of the binaural cues
-difference in sound pressure level reaching the two ears
-reduction in intensity occurs for high frequency sounds for the far ear (the head casts an acoustic shadow; this effect does not occur for low frequency sounds)

68
Q

acoustic shadow

A

a region of reduced amplitude of sound because it is obstructed by the head
-sound may have to travel through and around the head in order to reach an ear
-occurs only with high frequency sounds, not low ones

69
Q

interaural time difference

A

part of binaural cues
-difference between the times that sounds reach the two ears
-when distance to each ear is the same, there are no differences in time
-when the source is to the side of the observer, the times will differ

70
Q

spectral cues for localization

A

depend on just one ear

71
Q

azimuth - localizing sound

A

left-right

72
Q

distance - localizing sound

A

distance from face to sound/auditory stimulus

73
Q

elevation - localizing sound

A

up-down

74
Q

sound precedence

A

-concept described by Wallach et al
-when two identical sounds are presented in close succession they will be heard as a single fused sound

75
Q

auditory scene analysis

A

auditory scene: array of sound sources at different locations in the environment
auditory scene analysis: the stimuli produced by each source are separate
-all of these signals enter the listener’s ear together and so are combined into a single complex waveform

76
Q

sequential grouping (Gestalt)/heuristics

A

-sounds produced by the same source are usually similar in pitch
-auditory stream segregation: proximity
-sounds that stay constant or that change smoothly are often produced by the same source: good continuation
-onset time: sounds that start at different times are likely to come from different sources
-location: a single sound tends to come from one location and to move continuously
-similarity of timbre and pitch: similar sounds are grouped together

77
Q

mind wandering

A

deals with internal thoughts, thoughts of future, reflection, etc
-closely related to DMN
-linked with creative cognition
-brain prioritizes what is most pressing
-students frequently experience MW, especially when tired, anxious, stressed or bored
-meditation to promote MW or meditation to control MW

78
Q

deliberate rest

A

engaging with restful activities that are often vigorous and mentally engaging
-focus on important, but not urgent tasks
ex: hiking, painting, crosswords, puzzles

79
Q

dark adaptation

A

rods: light and dark; more sensitive towards light, low levels, increases sensitivity of rods to light during adaptation, typically gradual, less noticeable & takes about 20-30 minutes, takes longer if you come from a super bright area and takes longer the darker the area is
cones: only well lit areas
neural mechanisms involved:
-pupil dilates, gets bigger and tries to let more light in
-neural-retinal sensitivity increases (become more sensitive to light); threshold for cones to activate is decreased, they become more sensitive; threshold for rods to activate is also decreased, even more sensitive than they already are

80
Q

default mode network

A

large-scale network that activates at rest (internal attention)
-associated with mind wandering and control network
-system of connected brain areas that show increased activity when a person is not focused on what is happening around them

has been linked to:
-thinking of past & planning future
-reflecting on others
-running simulations
-imagining things

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