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PSYC-CRITICAL THINKING AND MET > Personality Theory Final Exam > Flashcards

Personality Theory Final Exam Flashcards

Perso

1
Q

What five factors did Norman (1963) find necessary?

A

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

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2
Q

What is the fundemental lexical hypothesis?

A

Proposes any significant individual difference, such as a central personality trait, will be encoded into the natural-language lexicon. This means that there will be a term to describe it in any or all of the languages of the world.

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3
Q

Explain how you can identify extraversion by looking at the brain?

A

Extraversion correlated with brain volume in a region of the frontal cortex that contributes to the processing of information about environmental rewards

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4
Q

Explain how you can identify neuroticism by looking at the brain?

A

Neuroticism correlated with great volume in brain regions known to be associated with the processing of environmental threats.

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5
Q

Explain how you can identify agreeableness by looking at the brain?

A

Agreeableness correlated with brain volume in regions of the brain that contribute to people’s ability to understand others’ mental states.

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6
Q

Explain how you can identify conscientiousness by looking at the brain?

A

Conscientiousness correlated with volume in a region of the frontal cortex known to be active when people plan events and follow rules.

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7
Q

Explain how you can identify openness by looking at the brain?

A

Openness to experience was not significantly related to any of the examined brain regions.

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8
Q

Is it safe to conclude that researchers have identified the neural origins of the big five traits?

A

No, for at least three reasons:
- The study yielded a number of null results and unexpected results.
- Cause-effect relationships were impossible to determine with these data.
- The brains’ various regions are enormously interconnected; focusing on volume in one region of the brain may yield an incomplete portrait.

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9
Q

What did Gosling and John (1998, 1999) research reveal about different animal species regarding the big five ?

A

2 species, ranging from octopuses, guppies, and rats to gorillas and chimpanzees, they found evidence that three of the human five-factor dimensions showed generality across species—E, N, and A

However, a separate C factor was found only in chimps (King & Figueredo, 1997), our closest relatives.

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10
Q

What is the NEO- Personality Inventory-Revised ?

A
  • Measures five factors and six narrower “facets” – more specific components that make up each of the broad Big Five factors
  • Each facet measured by 8 items
  • All scales have good reliability and validity across different data sources, including ratings by peers or spouses.
  • NEO-PI-R agrees with other Big Five instruments.
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11
Q

What is a strength of the NEO-PI-R?

A

Forms are available for both self report and questionnaire

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12
Q

What is the relationship between language and personality score?

A

There was a strong relation between the language used and personality scores.
- Individuals high on E used words such as party and weekend.
- Those low on E used words such as internet, computer, and reading.
- Individuals high on A used words such as amazing, awesome, and excited.
- Those low on A used words such as hate and jealous.

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13
Q

What is longitudinal stability?

A

Whether people high on a trait at one point in time are also high on that trait at another point in time

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14
Q

What is cross-situational consistency?

A

whether people high on that trait in some situations are high on that trait in other situations

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15
Q

What was Cattells approach to personality evaluation?

A

By analyzing not only traits, but states, roles, and processes, provided a systematic personality theory.

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16
Q

What was Eysencks approach to personality research ?

A

By relating traits to biological mechanisms, thisprovided a way to relate traits to our nervous system, though efforts to relate trait to biology were not entirely successful.

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17
Q

What are contemporary trait theorist approach to personality research?

A

less systematic; Five-factor theory does not specify the dynamic processes through which traits influence experience and behaviour.

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18
Q

What do trait theorist except when researching?

A

-Individual differences on self-report traits will predict behaviour.
-Genetically identical individuals will score similarly on trait measures.
-Trait scores will be stable over time.

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19
Q

What did Richard Davidson explore in reference to positive and negative emotion?

A

the left versus right hemispheres are differentially involved in positive versus negative emotion.

Individual differences in prefrontal asymmetry were found to be associated with baseline mood.
- Left hemispheric dominance with positive affect
- Right hemispheric dominance with negative affect

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20
Q

What is serotonin involved in?

A

Regulation of mood

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21
Q

What system does dopamine appear in?

A

Central functioning of the reward system

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22
Q

What are suggested links between biology and personality?

A

Amyglada, hemispheric lateralization, dopamine, serotonin, cortisol, testosterone

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23
Q

What is determinism?

A
  • Belief that an event is caused by some prior event, with the cause being something that can be understood according to basic laws of science
  • Stands in opposition to the belief in “free will”
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24
Q

What are basic assumptions of behavioural approach?

A
  • Behaviour must be explained in terms of the causal influence of the environment on the person.
  • An understanding of people should be built entirely upon controlled laboratory research. That research could involve either people or other animals.
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25
Q

What implications do the concept of determinism have on the concept of personality?

A
  • People have thoughts and feelings, but they are “behaviours” that also are caused by the environment.
  • If we could explain all behaviour in terms of general laws of learning, it would completely eliminate the need for a distinct field of study called “personality psychology”.
  • We are subject to physical laws that can be understood through scientific analysis.
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26
Q

What is maladaptive abnormal behaviour cause by? How could you treat this behaviour?

A

Maladaptive, “abnormal” behaviour is caused by maladaptive environments to which the person has been exposed.

The task of therapy is not to analyze underlying conflicts or to reorganize the individual’s personality.
The goal is to provide new learning experiences for the client.

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27
Q

If behaviour is caused by environment what should you do when conducting a research study? Why could this be unethical?

A

If behaviour is determined by the environment, then:
- Manipulate environmental variables to learn how they influence behaviour in carefully-controlled laboratory experiments.
- Study things that are observable

It may be impractical and/or unethical to manipulate environmental variables that affect everyday behaviours.

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28
Q

What is the strategy of studying simple systems?

A
  • Simple system contains important features that are the same as the features of human system.
  • There is enough similarity in the makeup of animals and people that the animal study will provide valuable information.
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29
Q

What are the basic points of emphasis of learning approaches to personality ?

A
  1. Empirical research is the cornerstone of theory and practice
  2. Personality theory and applied practice should be based on principles of learning
  3. Behaviour is responsive to reinforcement variables in the environment and is more situation specific than suggested by other personality theories
  4. the medical symptom-disease view of psychopathology is rejected and emphasis instead is placed on basic principles of learning and behaviour change
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30
Q

Who founded behaviourism? Define it.

A

John B Watson

All behaviour is a product of reward and punishment systems

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31
Q

Who founded the theory of classical conditioning ?

A

Ivan Pavlov

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone

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32
Q

Who founded operant conditioning? Define it.

A

B.F Skinner

A method of learning that involves punishment and rewards

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33
Q

What does a ABC assessment assess?

A

Antecedent conditions of the behaviour
Behaviour itself
Consequences of the behaviour

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34
Q

What is a ABA research design?

A
  • Measure behaviour at one point in time (the “A” time period)
  • Introduce a reinforcer and measure behaviour again at a second time point (the “B” period)
  • Take away the reinforcer to see if the behaviour returns to its original level (one returns to the “A” state of affairs)
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35
Q

Explain what a sign approach is in behavioural assesment

A

In a sign approach, a given test response is seen as an indicator of (i.e. a “sign” of) some inner characteristic possessed by the individual (e.g., “I like parties!”)

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36
Q

Explain a sample approach in behavioural assessment

A

Behaviourists adopt a sample approach; response is a sample of behaviour emitted upon presentation of a stimulus (i.e., no conclusions of personality drawn from “I like parties!”).

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37
Q

What are strengths of learning approaches?

A
  • committed to systematic research and theory development
  • recognizes the role of situational and enviormental variables in influencing behaviour
  • takes a pragmatic approach to treatment, which can lead to important new developments
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38
Q

What are limitations of learning approaches?

A
  • oversimplifies personality and neglects important phenomenon
  • lacks a single unified theory
  • requires further evidence to support claims of treatment effectivness
39
Q

What is constructive alternativism?

A

alternate specific constructs each may provide a useful way to view the world

40
Q

What is personal construct?

A

a concept used to interpret, or construe, the world

41
Q

What is verbal constructs?

A

expressed in words

42
Q

What are preverbal constructs ?

A

one that is used even though the person has no words to express it (a distinction Freudians would call conscious versus unconscious)

43
Q

What are core constructs?

A

basic to a person’s functioning; can be changed only with great consequences for the rest of the construct system

44
Q

What are peripheral constructs?

A

much less basic; can be altered without serious modification of the core structure

45
Q

Explain the steps in the Role Construct Repertory Test

A

In the first step, people are asked to indicate the names of specific people who have filled various roles in their life (e.g., mother, father, a teacher you liked)

The examiner then picks three specific figures from the list and asks the test-taker to indicate how two of these people are alike and are different from the third.

46
Q

What are George A. Kelly’s fundamental postulate of personal construct theory?

A
  • People’s psychological processes are channeled by the ways in which they anticipate events.
  • People use their personal construct system to anticipate what the future will bring.
  • The fundamental postulate links the structure aspects of Kelly’s theory (the personal construct system) to ongoing dynamic processes. It is “fluid”.
47
Q

Define anxiety, fear and threat, in reference to George Kelly

A

Anxiety: recognition that the events with which one is confronted lie outside the range of convenience of one’s construct system

Fear: when a new construct appears to be about to enter the construct system

Threat: awareness of imminent comprehensive change in one’s core structure

48
Q

What two points can be derived from Kelly’s work with the brain?

A

The brains of people with complex construct systems should differ from those with less complex systems.

Novice and expert thinkers might use the same neural system to construe the world, since they both possess one construct system, but the brains of cognitively complex experts would be more developed biologically (e.g., have a greater density of brain cells).

49
Q

What are two ways someone can protect themselves from anxiety and threat?

A

Submerge one end of a construct (e.g., unhealthy)

Suspend elements that do not fit well into a construct, not unlike repression (sounds like confirmation bias)

50
Q

What is fixed role therapy?

A

therapist wants clients to behave in new ways, to construe themselves in new ways, and thereby to become new people

51
Q

What two steps did Kelly take to make his theory testable?

A
  1. Defined the terms of personal construct theory quite precisely
  2. Developed an objective assessment procedure that perfectly matched the theory: the Rep test
52
Q

What was George Kelly’s view of personality?

A

Kelly’s fundamental view of personality was that people are like naive scientists who see the world through a particular lens, based on their uniquely organized systems of construction, which they use to anticipate events.

53
Q

Strengths of personal construct theory?

A
  1. places emphasis on cognitive process as a central aspect of personality
  2. presents a model of personality that provides for both the lawfulness of general personality functioning and the uniqueness of individual construct systems
  3. Includes a theory related technique for personality assessment and research (Rep Test)
54
Q

What are limitations to personal construct theory?

A
  1. Has not led to research that extends the theory
  2. Leaves out and makes minimal contributions to understanding some significant aspects of personality (growth/development)
  3. Is not yet connected with more general research and theory in cognitive psychology
55
Q

What were the three defined temperaments types for infants according to the New York Longitudinal Study ? And how did their young temperament effect their later personality.

A
  1. Easy babies who were playful and adaptable, found to have the least likelihood of later difficulties
  2. Difficult babies who were negative and unadaptable, found to have the greatest difficulty in later adjustment
  3. Slow-to-warm-up babies who were low in reactivity and mild in their responses
56
Q

Describe characteristics of inhibited children

A
  • Reacts to unfamiliar persons or events with restraint, avoidance, and distress
  • Takes a longer time to relax in new situations
    Has more unusual fears and phobias
57
Q

Describe characteristics of uninhibited children

A
  • Seems to enjoy new environments and people
  • Responds with spontaneity in novel situations, laughing and smiling easily
58
Q

What are the two types of biological causes of behaviour?

A

Proximate causes: refer to biological processes operating in the organism at the time the behaviour is observed

Ultimate causes: grounded in the basic principle that some biological features are better than others, at least for organisms living in a given environment.

59
Q

What is parental investment theory and who created it?

A

The theory predicts that the sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the less-investing sex will have intra-sexual competition for access to mates

Created by Robert Trivers

60
Q

What is parental probability theory?

A
  • Women can always be sure that they are the mothers of their offspring (they ‘emerge’ from them).
  • Males can never be sure (and are quite often NOT)…
  • Thus, males have greater concerns about sexual rivals and place greater value on chastity/fidelity in a potential mate than do females.
61
Q

What is the difference of a man or women’s causes of jealousy according to D. M Buss?

A
  • Males showed greater distress to partner’s sexual involvement.
  • Women showed greater distress partner’s emotional involvement.
62
Q

What is the biological roots of human nature?

A

The link between evolution and behaviour

63
Q

What is behavioural genetics?

A

the study of genetic contributions to behaviour

64
Q

What do twin studies tell us about personality differences and similarities?

A
  • If 2 organisms are identical genetically, later differences can be attributed to differences in environments.
  • If 2 organisms are different genetically but experience the same environment, differences can be attributed to genetic factors.
65
Q

What are MZ twins? What are DZ twins?

A
  • MZ twins are genetically identical.
  • DZ twins are as genetically similar as any pair of siblings, on the average sharing, on average, 50 percent of their genes.
66
Q

What is a heritability coefficient? (h2)

A

Proportion of observed variance in scores that can be attributed to genetic factors

67
Q

What are non shared enviorments?

A

those not shared by siblings growing up in the same family

67
Q

What is a shared enviorment?

A

those shared by siblings as a result of growing up in the same family

68
Q

If shared enviorments are important what does that tell us?

A
  • Biological siblings raised together will be more similar than biological siblings raised apart and should be more similar to biological parents than are siblings raised apart
  • Two adopted siblings raised together should be more similar than if they were raised apart
69
Q

If non shared envioments are important what does that tell us?

A

biological siblings raised together will be no more similar than if they were raised apart

70
Q

What are the three kinds of nature nurture interactions?

A
  1. The same environmental experiences may have different effects on individuals with different genetic constitutions
  2. Individuals with different genetic constitutions may evoke different responses from the environment
  3. Individuals with different constitutions select and create different environments
71
Q

What are the three psychological qualities are essential features of persons

A
  1. Persons are beings who can reason about the world, using language.
  2. Persons can reason about not only present circumstances, but also events in their past and hypothetical events in their future.
  3. This reasoning commonly involves reflection on the self, the being who is doing the reasoning.
72
Q

What are the four structural concepts in social cognitive theory that are noteworthy?

A

Competencies and skills
Expectancies and beliefs
Behavioural standards
Personal goals

73
Q

What are compentencies ?

A

Involve both ways of thinking about life problems and behavioural skills in executing solutions to them.

74
Q

What is declarative knowledge ?

A

Knowledge we can state in words, one of the two types of knowledge of competencies

75
Q

What is procedural knowledge?

A

Cognitive and behavioural capacities that a person may have without being able to articulate their exact nature, one of the two types of knowledge of competencies

76
Q

What are the three different ways people think about the world

A
  1. People have beliefs about what the world actually is like and what things probably will be like in the future.
    (Beliefs that are directed to the future = expectancies)
  2. People have thoughts about what things should be like: evaluative standards; mental criteria for evaluating the goodness or worth of events.
  3. People have thoughts about what one wants to achieve in the future – goals.
77
Q

What do people have expectancies of?

A
  • The likely behaviour of other people
  • The rewards or punishments that may follow a certain type of behaviour
  • Their own ability to handle the stress and challenges
78
Q

What is self efficacy

A

People’s perceptions of their own capabilities for action in future situations

79
Q

What are outcome expectations?

A

beliefs about the rewards and punishments that will occur if one performs a behaviour

80
Q

What are self efficacy expectations?

A

Beliefs about whether one can perform the behaviour in the first place

Efficacy expectations generally more important than outcome expectations as a determinant of behaviour

81
Q

What does perception of self efficacy have an effect on within out personalities?

A

Selection: goals individuals select

Effort/ Performance: Individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs show greater effort and persistence and perform better relative to individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs

Emotion: Individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs approach tasks with better moods (i.e., less anxiety and depression) than individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs.

Coping: Individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs are better able to cope with stress and disappointments than are individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs.

82
Q

What is a goal?

A

Mental representation of the aim of an action or course of actions

People’s ability to envision the future enables them to set specific goals for action and thus, to motivate and direct their behaviour.

83
Q

What do goals do for individuals?

A
  • Contribute to the human capacity for self-control
  • Guide us in establishing priorities and in selecting among situations
  • Enable us to go beyond momentary influences and to organize our behaviour over extended periods of time
  • May differ in their subjective meaning
84
Q

What are personal standards?

A

evaluative standards concerning one’s self; fundamental to motivation and performance

85
Q

What is Banduras social cognitive theory

A

a reciprocal determinism constrasts with behaviourism , which attempted to explain behaviour behaviour and experience solely in terms of enviormental influences

86
Q

What is personality as a complex system?

A
  • Social-cognitive variables interact with one another in an organized fashion.
  • As a result, there is an overall coherence to personality functioning.
87
Q

What are the three essential features within the cognitive affective processing system model of personality?

A
  1. Cognitive and emotional personality variables are complexly linked to one another
  2. Different aspects of social situations, or “situational features,” activate subsets of the overall personality system.
  3. If different situational features activate different parts of the overall personality system, then people’s behaviour should vary from one situation to another.
88
Q

What is observational learning?

A

People can form a mental representation of the behaviour they have observed to draw upon at a later point in time.

The process can be more complex than simple imitation or mimicry.

89
Q

What is vicarious conditioning?

A

Process of learning emotional reactions through observing others

90
Q

What is social cognitive theory?

A

views people as active agents who can both influence and are influenced by their environment

addresses human motivation by examining the motivational impact of thoughts related to oneself.

91
Q

What is Michels delay of gratification paradigm ?

A

Children do well at the task if they employ cognitive strategies that distract them from the attractive qualities of the rewards.

Ex: the marshmallow experiement

92
Q

What is cool encoding

A

a way of thinking about the stimulus that does not activate “hot,” impulsive emotional systems

93
Q

How do individuals attain the four structural concepts in social cognitive theory?

A

through direct experience and observation, through direct experiencing of rewards and punishments, and through vicarious conditioning.

PSYC-CRITICAL THINKING AND MET (3 decks)

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