Political Developments 1982-97

Question 1

What did Deng say about political reform in 1986?

Answer 1

‘All our other reforms depend on the success of political reform, because it is human beings who will - or
will not - carry them out’.

Question 2

What were the ‘feudal elements’ among the Party bureaucracy according to Deng (2)?

Answer 2

1) Party cadres had the privilege of a job for life, as long as they survived the purges. Many, even at the
higher levels of the Party, were poorly educated, old and resistant to change.
2) Officials in the Party bureaucracy who abused their power, enriching themselves and their families, and
behaving like feudal overlords over the Chinese people.

Question 3

What were Deng’s institutional reforms (6)?

Answer 3

1) The clearing out of ageing Party members at all levels and replacing them with younger people, with a
better education and more technical expertise.
2) He wanted a robust system for the supervision and removal of corrupt cadres.
3) He abolished the post of Party Chairman, replacing it with General Secretary, whose office was staffed
with young and educated cadres.
4) Deng made the Party leadership more collective. Hu Yaobang and Zhang Ziyang occupied key roles as
reformers. A rule was introduced the Party members could not stand above the law or make major decisions
on their own.
5) He wanted the Party and the State to be more clearly separated.
6) He reformed the PLA, with older officers pushed into retirement, budget cuts and the restoration of
military ranks (abolished during the CR). The PLA had representation on the Politburo.

Question 4

Who was Deng Liqun (Little Deng)?

Answer 4

Rehabilitated in 1974, following his purge in the CR, he served as head of the Propaganda Department of the
CCP in the 1980s. Although he supported the dismantling of communes, he thought Deng was straying too
far from orthodox Marxist thinking.

Question 5

Who was Wang Zhen?

Answer 5

A former PLA commander during the Civil War, and was known for being ‘incorruptible’. He was an
advocate for the use of military force against Tiananmen Square protests in 1989.

Question 6

What was the ‘conservative faction’?

Answer 6

A group, mostly consisting of ageing cadres, who were resistant to Deng’s changes. Instead, they defended
elements of MZT.

Question 7

Why was there a generational divide in the struggle over political reform in the 1980s?

Answer 7

Many of the ageing cadres felt threatened by Deng’s promotion of younger men.

Question 8

Why was there an ideological divide in the struggle over political reform in the 1980s?

Answer 8

Many of the conservative faction were veterans of the Long March, and although many fell foul of Mao in
the CR, they were steeped in Mao’s values. They were concerned that Deng’s economic reforms were
undermining many of his socialist values which they had fought for their whole lives, and that his political
reforms were depriving them of influence over events.

Question 9

Who were some opponents to Deng’s political reforms in the 1980s (5 potential)?

Answer 9

Peng Zhen, Chen Yun, Bo Yibo, Deng Liqun and Wang Zhen.

Question 10

What compromises did Deng make to appease the ‘conservative faction’ (3)?

Answer 10

1) Many old cadres only agreed to retire after Deng established the Central Advisory Commission (CAC),
where they could have a supervisory role over Party decisions.
2) The launch of the campaign against ‘spiritual pollution’, targeting the growing fashion of Western haircuts
and clothing among the young, individualism and the attitude of ‘looking to make money in everything’, and
the revival of clan feuds and superstitious beliefs in rural areas.
3) Deng occasionally slowed down the pace of both economic and political reform.

Question 11

What was the Central Advisory Commission (CAC)?

Answer 11

Est. in 1892 and abolished in 1992, it was chaired by Deng Xiaoping (1882-87) and Chen Yun (1887-92).
Membership was only offered members of the Central Committee with forty years or more of service,
making it an important forum for the Eight Elders to remain formally involved in politics, and have a
supervisory role over Party decisions.

Question 12

What was Deng’s campaign against ‘spiritual pollution’?

Answer 12

Launched as a concession to the conservative faction in 1892, it targeted the growing fashion of Western
haircuts and clothing among the young, individualism and the attitude of ‘looking to make money in
everything’, and the revival of clan feuds and superstitious beliefs in rural areas.

Question 13

What were the 5 main reasons why pressure for political change increased during the 1980s?

Answer 13

1) The expansion of university education led to student protests.
2) A flowering of intellectual debate from the mid 1980s onwards.
3) The Open Door Policy exposed China to foreign influences and pressures.
4) Economic reforms fuelled social unrest.
5) The CCP’s credibility was damaged due to corruption amongst Party cadres.

Question 14

How did the expansion of university education increase pressure for political change in the 1980s?

Answer 14

The expansion of university education led to an increase in student protests against poor living conditions on
campuses, high living costs and the lack of intellectual freedom. There were student protests in Beijing in
1985, and more serious and widespread demonstrations in 1986.

Question 15

How did intellectual debate increase pressure for political change in the 1980s?

Answer 15

From the mid 1980s, there was a flowering of intellectual debate, challenging the official orthodoxy of the
CCP. Fang Lizhi (a leading figure of this movement), was an astrophysicist, who made a nationwide tour of
university campuses in 1986. He called for people to ‘break all barriers’ and demand democratic rights and
freedom.

Question 16

How did the Open Door Policy increase pressure for political change in the 1980s (2)?

Answer 16

1) The Open Door Policy on trade and investment exposed China to foreign influences and pressures. An
intellectual debate over ‘socialist humanism’ in 1983, leading to demands for equality before the law and
respect for human rights, was partly stimulated with contact with the outside world.
2) Western leaders visiting China raised issues of human rights violations with PRC leaders, and Western
governments had contact with leading activists (e.g. Fang Lizhi).

Question 17

How did economic reforms increase pressure for political change in the 1980s (2)?

Answer 17

1) Pressure was put on consumers and workers by price and rent rises, lay-offs from factories to reduce costs
and raise efficiency and harsh working conditions. This led to strikes.
2) Increased migration by peasants to the cities placed pressure on housing, leading to homelessness and
begging in cities. An increase in crime, including armed attacks by gangs on trains and road transport, added
to the perception of social instability.

Question 18

How did corruption amongst Party cadres increase pressure for political change in the 1980s?

Answer 18

1) Corruption among cadres damaged the credibility of the CCP. Party officials took bribes, got involved in
corrupt land deals, and used their contacts to help family and friends. Despite periodic anti-corruption drives,
with 150,00 members expelled 1883-87, problems persisted.
2) The CCP’s justification for dictatorship had always rested on its claim to represent the people. Corruption
eroded this image, with fewer and fewer interested in joining the Party, and a growing cynicism among
normal Chinese people towards it.

Question 19

Who was Fang Lizhi?

Answer 19

1) An academic and astrophysicist, who had been purged in the anti-Rightist campaign (1957) and the CR,
before being allowed to continue his work in the 1970s.
2) He was expelled from the CCP in 1987 after arguing the need for more democracy in the 1980s.
3) Although not directly involved in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, he was listed for arrest but was
given political asylum in the American embassy. He was allowed to leave China in 1990, continuing his work
in Britain and the USA.

Question 20

What did Jonathan Fenby (historian) say about China in the 1980s?

Answer 20

‘China was booming and imploding at the same time, under a system that could not cope with its own
growth’.

Question 21

What was the cause of the Chinese student demonstrations of 1986 (2 stages)?

Answer 21

1) In the summer of 1986, CCP high ranking officials debated political reform. Most reformers wanted
change to be limited to greater freedom of expression and supervision of officials within the Party. However,
some wanted more radical changes, like a multi-party system and free elections. 2) The radical reformers
initially thought they had Deng’s support, but he gave support to the conservative faction, condemning the
demands for ‘bourgeois liberalisation’. The CCP was paralysed internally, causing political reform to be
postponed.

Question 22

What were the Chinese student demonstrations of 1986?

Answer 22

With political reform postponed, students/intellectuals took the initiative in December 1986. They protested
at a university in Hefei about the lack of selection of a head of the student union. The authorities gave in to
the demands, causing students in Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing, etc. to demonstrate and put up big character
wall posters. In most cases authorities did not use excessive force, but some arrests were made.

Question 23

What was the aftermath of the Chinese student demonstrations of 1986 (4)?

Answer 23

1) By January 1987, the movement was losing momentum, but for the conservative faction and for Deng, it
had gone too far. Deng denounced the ‘turmoil’, blaming intellectuals like Fang Lizhi, making it clear any
repetition would be met by force.
2) The conservative faction blamed Hu Yaobang for ‘failing to provide correct leadership’ and resisting the
Party’s attempts to fight ‘spiritual pollution’.
3) In January 1987, Hu Yaobang was sacked as General Secretary and replaced by Zhao Ziyang. Fang Lizhi
was also expelled from the CCP, but there was no purge of intellectuals.
4) There was a tightening of press censorship and universities were brought under stricter Party control.

Question 24

What was the crisis of 1988 (3)?

Answer 24

1) In the preceding months before the spring of 1988, the Chinese economy faced high wage and price
inflation, with falling living standards. In April, demonstrations against rising living costs took place on
university campuses.
2) Student protesters in Tiananmen Square demanded action against corruption, and for progress on human
rights.
3) Within the CCP leadership there was debate over economic reform, with Deng leading calls for relaxation
of price controls. Deng changed his mind and prices were frozen for 2 years.

Question 25

Who was blamed for the crisis of 1988?

Answer 25

Zhao Ziyang, who was initially reluctant to support Deng’s policy of price decontrol, and was then left to
take responsibility when things went wrong.

Question 26

How did the Tiananmen Square demonstration in April 1989 start (4)?

Answer 26

1) In April 1989, Hu Yaobang died suddenly, with rumours saying he suffered a fatal heart attack in a heated
argument with Bo Yibo. This sparked a protest movement in Beijing.
2) Large rallies of mourners, mostly students, gathered in Tiananmen Square to pay their respects to Hu
Yaobang. This quickly turned into a pro-democracy rally.
3) Students from across Beijing established a Beijing Students Autonomous Federation (BSAF) to coordinate
demands for reform. A Beijing Workers Autonomous Federation (BWAF) was created, supporting the BSAF.
4) Demonstrations in Tiananmen Square grew in size, with clashes with police and some injuries. Movements
spread to other Chinese cities, and a student boycott of classes began in Beijing.

Question 27

What was the Tiananmen Square demonstration in April 1989 (3)?

Answer 27

1) Deng denounced the student boycotts and protests as ‘turmoil’ led by troublemakers wanting to overthrow
socialism. Deng stated ‘Don’t be afraid of students because we still have several million troops’.
2) The BSAF called for mass marches on Tiananmen Square to oppose ‘bureaucracy, corruption and special
privilege’. By the end of April around 100,000 people marched on Tiananmen Square, breaking police lines.
3) Deng, realising his hard line had not worked, allowed Zhao Ziyang to meet the students and consider their
demands. The revelation of a split in the Party encouraged others to join the protests, but Zhao’s offer to talk
split the protesters. Some were willing to talk with the CCP leadership, whilst others wanted an increase in
pressure to get more concessions. This split caused a drain in impetus from the protests.

Question 28

Who was Mikhail Gorbachev?

Answer 28

The leader of the USSR 1985-91, overseeing a programme of economic and political reforms (e.g.
Perestroika and Glasnost).

Question 29

When did Gorbachev visit Beijing, and what did it signify?

Answer 29

Gorbachev visited China in May 1989, the first visit by a Soviet leader in over 20 years. This marked an
improvement in relations between the two countries.

Question 30

What was the effect of Gorbachev’s visit on the Tiananmen Square demonstrations (2)?

Answer 30

1) Gorbachev’s visit to China in May 1989 caused the world’s media to descend on Beijing. The prospect of
capturing this attention encouraged protestors to escalate their protests, with 100s beginning a hunger strike
in Tiananmen Square.
2) By the time Gorbachev had left (3 days), the protestors had taken control of the Square. Zhao Ziyang was
still trying to find a peaceful solution, but the conservative faction put pressure on Deng for a military
crackdown.

Question 31

What is martial law?

Answer 31

When the army has political and administrative control over the civilian population of an area.

Question 32

When did Deng Xiaoping declare marshal law in China?

Answer 32

19 May 1989.

Question 33

What were the key events leading to military crackdown in Beijing (20-30 May 1989) (6)?

Answer 33

1) 20 May 1989: Huge crowds of Beijing residents take up the streets, setting up roadblocks to stop the
movement of troops. Many soldiers and factory workers show their support for the students.
2) 21 May 1989: A number of senior PLA officers write to Deng Xiaoping in protest of marshal law, stating
the army ‘should under no circumstance fire on the people’.
3) 22 May 1989: PLA forces ordered to withdraw to the edge of Beijing.
4) 24 May 1989: Zhao Ziyang dismissed from the Politburo for having split the Party.
5) 29 May 1989: Many protesters in the Square are drifting away with debate about when the protest should
end. A group of students begin construction on a statue of a woman holding a torch - ‘Goddess of Liberty’.
Authorities begin arresting members of the BWAF.
6) 30 May 1989: Around 300,000 visit Tiananmen Square to view the ‘Goddess of Liberty’.

Question 34

What were the events of the ‘Tiananmen Square Massacre’ June 1989 (3)?

Answer 34

1) On 3 June 1989, the PLA began to move against demonstrators. The army attempted to occupy the square,
but crowds surrounded the soldiers, preventing this. At 10:00pm, PLA units were ordered to advance on
Tiananmen Square and clear it by 6:00am.
2) When hostile protesters halted the columns of tanks and armoured personnel carriers, soldiers fired on the
crowds. There were several clashes on the roads leading to Tiananmen Square, with people fighting back
with rocks, petrol bombs and iron bars. There were casualties on both sides.
3) In the morning of 4 June 1989, the PLA occupied Tiananmen Square. Within an hour of the arrival of the
PLA, the students had organised a peaceful withdrawal, instead of fighting.

Question 35

How many died in the ‘Tiananmen Square Massacre’?

Answer 35

There was no massacre in Tiananmen Square itself, but 600 - 1200 died during the PLA’s advance on the
Square, and in later operations to quell resistance. 1000s were injured.

Question 36

What was the immediate aftermath of the PLA’s suppression of the Tiananmen Square demonstrations (June
1989) (3)?

Answer 36

1) In the following days there were anti-government protests in many cities, e.g. Shanghai and Chengdu.
2) Many pro-democracy activists were arrested, with official figures at 1600 (likely more). Many leaders of
the pro-democracy movement, including Fang Lizhi, fled abroad or were arrested and jailed.
3) At the end of June, 35 people were publicly executed for their part in the protests.

Question 37

Who was Jiang Zemin?

Answer 37

He became General Secretary of the CCP in 1989, and succeeded Deng as ‘paramount leader’ in 1997.
Before this, he was Mayor of Shanghai (1885-89) and a strong supporter of Deng’s reforms.

Question 38

How did Deng try to regain public confidence following the ‘Tiananmen Square Massacre’ (3)?

Answer 38

1) He continued to renew and reinvigorate CCP leadership by promoting younger, professional and
managerial men. E.g. Jiang Zemin replaced Zhao Ziyang as General Secretary.
2) He agreed to the temporary slowing down of the economic reform programme, but there was no retreat on
its key features.
3) The CCP launched a new anti-corruption campaign in the summer of 1989. Hundreds of Party members
were expelled, relatives banned from involvement in private business and Party officials lost some privileges.
Five of China’s largest companies had to pay heavy fines for corrupt practices.

Question 39

What was the effect of the ‘Tiananmen Square Massacre’ on CCP leadership (2)?

Answer 39

1) The conservative faction wanted to consolidate their position, and pushed for Zhao Ziyang to be
prosecuted and his supporters purged. Deng launched a rectification campaign, but refused to prosecute
Zhao, not wanting to split the CCP or allow the conservatives to control the agenda.
2) Factional disputes within the CCP leadership continued, and Deng, who was in his 80s and suffering from
increasingly poor health, gradually withdrew from day-to-day affairs.

Question 40

What changes did Deng make to the CCP leadership in 1992 (3), and why?

Answer 40

Deng abolished the CAC, promoted many committed reformers to the Central Committee, and removed some
leading conservatives. By swinging the political balance in favour of the reformers, Deng and Jiang Zemin
were able to extend and speed up the economic reforms.

Question 41

When did Deng Xiaoping die?

Answer 41

19 February 1997.

Question 42

Who succeeded Deng Xiaoping?

Answer 42

Jiang Zemin.

Question 43

How did Deng preside over factional rivalries in the CCP throughout his rule (3)?

Answer 43

1) He presided over a Party riven by factional struggles, and like Mao, never committed wholeheartedly to
one or another.
2) This allowed him to keep his power as the ultimate arbiter in the power struggle, allowing him to shift
blame when things went wrong.
3) He was ruthless in dealing with protest movements appearing to threaten his or the CCP’s position.

Question 44

Who were the Eight Elders?

Answer 44

A group of elderly members of the CCP who held substantial power in the last two decades of the 20th
century. Original members:
1) Deng Xiaoping.
2) Chen Yun.
3) Peng Zhen.
4) Li Xiannian.
5) Wang Zhen.
6) Bo Yibo.
7) Yang Shangkun.
8) Deng Yingchao.