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Psyc 331 > Post-Midterm II: April 8-April 11 > Flashcards

Post-Midterm II: April 8-April 11 Flashcards

1
Q

general note for understanding when children “learn X”

A

children VARY A LOT in when they develop certain capacities

age ranges should be viewed like a measure of CENTRAL TENDENCY (ie. mean, median) rather than a rule

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2
Q

nonverbal recognition: how to measure recognition of social categories?

A

preverbal infants can’t tell us if they recognize something

can INFER NOVELTY from EYE GAZE DURATION

habituation paradigm

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3
Q

habituation paradigm: looking time can assess both…

A
  1. novelty

a) recognition of novelty, difference or change

  1. preference
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4
Q

habituation paradigm: recognition of novelty, difference or change

A

when a pre-existing stimulus has been COMPLETELY ENCODED

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5
Q

habituation paradigm: preference

A

when a pre-existing stimulus HASN’T BEEN FULLY ENCODED

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6
Q

what do infants do when a pre-existing stimulus hasn’t been fully encoded?

A

they show a PREFERENCE for it

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7
Q

novelty example: habituation paradigm - sample

A

5-6 month olds

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8
Q

novelty example: habituation paradigm - design

A
  1. habituate to a photo
  2. see a new photo of someone who is SIMILAR or DIFFERENT in GENDER or AGE
  3. assess looking time
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9
Q

novelty example: habituation paradigm - DV

A

looking time at new photo

habituation = complete encoding, so recognition

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10
Q

preference example: habituation paradigm - sample

A

white newborns and white 3 month olds

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11
Q

preference example: habituation paradigm - design

A
  1. saw images of people from different races

NO HABITUATION

  1. assess looking time
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12
Q

preference example: habituation paradigm - DV

A

looking time

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13
Q

novelty example: habituation paradigm - RESULTS

A

LESS looking time: for similar gender and age

MORE looking time: for different gender and age

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14
Q

preference example: habituation paradigm - since there’s no habituation in this manipulation…

A

looking time reflects PREFERENCE

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15
Q

preference example: habituation paradigm - RESULTS

A

NEWBORNS:
a) no race-based difference in looking time

3 MONTH OLDS:
a) more looking time at WHITE FACES

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16
Q

preference example: habituation paradigm - MAIN POINT

A

nonverbal preferences based on race develop with experience

because newborns showed no diffs in looking time

but 3 month olds looked more at racial ingroup (preference)

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17
Q

2 rules for when awareness of social categories develop

A
  1. VISIBILITY of social category
  2. PRIMACY of social category in EVERYDAY life
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18
Q

implications of visibility of a social category for what social categories kids perceive first

A

younger children are most aware of physically visible categories

like RACE and GENDER

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19
Q

when does awareness of gender develop?

A

2-3 years old

children latch onto gender roles pretty strongly

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20
Q

when does awareness of race/ethnicity develop?

A

5 years and older

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21
Q

order of races that White children in the US can distinguish

A

Black people first

Asian, Latinx and Native American people later

but there’s lots of variation

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22
Q

do children and adults determine race in the same way?

A

no, they do this differently

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23
Q

children vs adults determining race study SAMPLE

A

adults and 4-9 year olds

in Northeast US

81% White
11% Black
8% other

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24
Q

children vs adults determining race study DESIGN

A

participants saw White and Black faces

had to label them as:

  1. “White or European American”
  2. “Black or African American”

faces differed in:

  1. skin colour
  2. facial features
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25
Q

children vs adults determining race study - how did the face stimuli differ?

A
  1. skin colour
  2. facial features (physiognomy)

there were more and less Afrocentric faces

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26
Q

children vs adults determining race study - participants had to label the faces as either…

A
  1. “White or European American”
  2. “Black or African American”
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27
Q

children vs adults determining race study - main point

A

adults rely on a combination of skin colour and facial features

children rely primarily on skin colour

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28
Q

what do children rely on when determining race?

A

skin colour

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29
Q

what do adults rely on when determining race?

A

skin colour

facial features

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30
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? what did this study look at?

A

looked at the development of race as an IMMUTABLE or ESSENTIAL feature of a person

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31
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? SAMPLE

A

5-6 year olds

9-10 year olds

adults

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32
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? SETUP

A

5-6 year olds, 8-9 year olds and adults viewed images of:

White and Black kids and adults

that were expressing either a HAPPY or ANGRY expression

on each trial, participants saw a photo of one child who was making either a HAPPY or ANGRY expression and then:

a) one SAME-RACE adult making a DIFF expression

b) one OTHER-RACE adult making a SAME expression

participant had to answer “when the child grows up, which one will he be?”

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33
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? PARTICIPANTS HAD TO ANSWER WHAT QUESTION?

A

“when the child grows up, which one will he be?”

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34
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? RESULTS

A

9-10 year old White kids and adults viewed RACE AS MORE IMPORTANT than emotion when making predictions

5-6 year old White kids USED RACE MUCH LESS compared to White 9-10 year olds

BUT MINORITY 5-6 year olds were ALSO MORE LIKELY TO USE RACE

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35
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? what groups were more likely to use race when making predictions?

A

9-10 year old White kids

White adults

racial minority 5-6 year olds

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36
Q

study: do kids think about race as essential? SPECIAL FINDING IN RACIAL MINORITY 5-6 YEAR OLDS

A

racial minority 5-6 year olds (unlike White 5-6 year olds) were more likely to use RACE than emotion when making predictions

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37
Q

as kids become more aware of race as an aspect of one’s social identity…

A

they also become aware of the cultural NORM of HESITANCY to DISCUSS RACE

“colourblindness”

children may learn to avoid discussing race even in situations where the situation might demand it

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38
Q

how far does “colourblind” norm go in kids?

A

children may learn to avoid discussing race even in situations where the situation might demand it

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39
Q

“guess who” study investigated what?

A

how far children would go in avoiding discussing race by using a modified version of the game “guess who?”

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40
Q

“guess who” study examines race as a _____ issue

A

sensitive

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41
Q

“guess who” study setup

A

show three photos of people

ask “which one is Thomas?”

participant must ask very specific questions to figure out who Thomas is

will kids hesitate to ask about race?

which age group will arrive at the answer quicker/ask the most efficient questions

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42
Q

“guess who” study conditions

A
  1. RACE-RELEVANT condition
    a) pictures include people of diff races
  2. RACE-NEUTRAL condition
    a) pictures are of people of the same race
    b) but have a sticker at the bottom of each photo - either brown or light beige

will kids use this sticker over over referencing race?

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43
Q

“guess who” study results

A

key difference when testing 8-9 year olds versus 10-11 year olds

  1. 8-9 year olds asked roughly the same amount of questions across both conditions
  2. 10-11 year olds needed MORE QUESTIONS to get to the right answer in the RACE-RELEVANT condition

SO YOUNGER KIDS DID BETTER ON THE TASK WHEN RACE WAS INTRODUCED

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44
Q

2 important factors for development of racial prejudice

A
  1. are you a member of a MAJORITY or MINORITY group?
  2. how much CONTACT do you have with members of minority groups?
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44
Q

“guess who” study takeaway

A

8-9 year olds aren’t affected highly by social norms about avoiding discussing race

10-11 year olds are though, so they take longer to accomplish “guess who” task

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45
Q

CHART: relative prejudice levels depending on group membership

A

lowest prejudice level:
MINORITY GROUP

middle prejudice level:
MAJORITY GROUP WITH HIGH OPPORTUNITY FOR CONTACT

highest prejudice level:
MAJORITY GROUP WITH LOW OPPORTUNITY FOR CONTACT

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46
Q

development of prejudice depends on…

A

majority/minority group status

amount of contact

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47
Q

CHART: changes in explicit racial prejudice as kids age

A

WHITE KIDS:

a) at age 5, like White people more and stay VERY CONSISTENT as they age

b) explicit liking of minorities increases with age

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48
Q

implicit attitudes across development STUDY METHOD

A

IAT

modified to work with kids

used pics of Black and White faces

and smiley/frowny faces instead of “good”/”bad”

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49
Q

implicit attitudes across development STUDY SAMPLE

A

N = 79

mostly White participants in Boston

27 kindergartners

30 fifth graders

22 adults

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50
Q

implicit attitudes across development STUDY RESULTS

A
  1. SELF-REPORTED preference for White over Black kids LOWERS AS AGE INCREASES

a) highest in 6 year olds, then lowers in 10 year olds and lowers again in adults

  1. IMPLICIT Pro-White Attitudes STAY STEADY ACROSS AGES

a) are the same for 6 and 10 year olds and adults

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51
Q

differences between implicit and explicit attitudes: why does EXPLICIT PREJUDICE DECLINE?

A
  1. learn social and cultural NORMS about race
  2. internalize MORAL lessons about EQUALITY & FAIRNESS
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51
Q

implicit attitudes across development TAKEAWAY

A

self reported favouring of Whites over Blacks decreases with age

implicit preference for Whites stays stable across ages

REFLECTS POWER OF SOCIAL NORMS

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52
Q

differences between implicit and explicit attitudes: reasons for STABILITY IN IMPLICIT ATTITUDES

A
  1. stability of ATTITUDE
  2. stability of CULTURAL MESSAGES
  3. implicit prejudice increases, but adults get better at controlling them

a) two things in opposing directions at work
b) an increase and a decrease

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52
Q

implicit and explicit race attitudes among children in Cameroon STUDY SETUP

A

investigated implicit and explicit race attitudes towards Black, White and Chinese people

among children growing up in Cameroon

  1. adapted IAT for implicit attitudes
  2. preferences for own-race vs other-race people in a variety of scenarios
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53
Q

implicit and explicit race attitudes among children in Cameroon STUDY SAMPLE

A

30 participants from following age ranges:

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-15

15-18

18-30

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54
Q

implicit and explicit race attitudes among children in Cameroon STUDY - sample scenario

A

sample scenario for testing explicit attitudes

“this summer your mother will take you to a swimming class. you can choose one person to coach you to swim. which one would you like to choose?”

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55
Q

implicit and explicit race attitudes among children in Cameroon STUDY RESULTS

A

results revealed DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE LIFESPAN for how implicit and explicit attitudes change over time

  1. IMPLICIT:

a) pre-age 5/6, show ingroup preference

b) pro-White or pro-Chinese preference emerges after 6

  1. EXPLICIT:

a) stay stable across ages

b) favour ingroup

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56
Q

implicit and explicit race attitudes among children in Cameroon STUDY - WHAT HAPPENS AT 5/6?

A

children in Cameroon begin to favour the outgroup over the ingroup

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57
Q

study: does extended experience with other-race nannies predict racial bias in the preschool years?

A

in sample of one hundred 3-6 year olds in Singapore

researchers compared those with and without “other-race” nanny experience

children completed measures of explicit and implicit racial bias

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58
Q

study SAMPLE: other-race nannies

A

one hundred 3-6 year olds in Singapore

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59
Q

other-race nannies study: MEASURES THEY COMPLETED

A
  1. explicit racial bias
  2. implicit racial bias
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60
Q

other-race nannies study: RESULTS

A

more contact with other-race nannies was associated with LESS INGROUP RACIAL PREFERENCE in EXPLICIT ATTITUDES

LENGTH of contact with an other-race nanny WASN’T associated with the AMOUNT of ingroup racial preference in IMPLICIT attitudes

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61
Q

other-race nannies study: did the length of contact with other-race nanny correlate with the amount of ingroup racial preference in implicit attitudes?

A

no

so length of contact didn’t modulate implicit attitudes

whereas for explicit attitudes, MORE CONTACT with other-race nannies resulted in less ingroup racial preference

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62
Q

preference for one’s own gender develops when?

A

ages 3-4

recall: gender awareness develops at around 2-3

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63
Q

when do gender preferences decline?

A

around puberty

probably because of heterosexual attraction

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64
Q

girls as young as 6 years old were less likely than boys to…

A

report that members of their gender are “really, really smart”

ie. asked “which person is really, really smart” and shown a picture of a man and a woman

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65
Q

6 year old girls are less likely to think girls can be “really, really smart” - these beliefs in turn…

A

predicted LESS INTEREST in activities that were believed to be for “really, really smart” people

66
Q

development of gender stereotypes: while 5 year olds thought…

A

5 year olds though their OWN GENDER was MORE LIKELY to be smart…

starting at AGE 6, both girl and boy participants though MEN WERE SMARTER

67
Q

two things that happen at age 6

A
  1. minority groups begin to implicitly favour the outgroup
  2. girls and boys think men are smarter

this aligns with the beginning of formal schooling in most countries

68
Q

development of gender stereotypes: the difference between 5 and 6 year olds carries over…

A

into interest in GAMES that were described as being for “really really smart people”

AGE 5:
a) girls are, if anything, MORE INTERESTED than boys

AGE 6:
a) BOYS are more interested than girls

69
Q

“draw a scientist” task meta-analysis

A

meta-analysis covering 40 years, 78 studies, over 20 k participants

found that GENDER BIAS in the “draw a scientist” task is DECREASING OVER TIME

but NOT SUBSTANTIALLY

70
Q

“draw a scientist” task: what happens for GIRLS as they AGE?

A

RATE of drawing a male scientists INCREASES with AGE

71
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: STUDY SETUP

A

investigated whether children’s racial biases could be changed by reading a children’s story that featured a CROSS-RACE FRIENDSHIP

  1. manipulated whether the person reading the story to the child was Black (outgroup) or White (ingroup)
  2. also measured each child’s RECONCILIATION SKILLS
72
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: STUDY SAMPLE

A

sample split between:

  1. kindergarteners (5-6 years old)
  2. second-graders (7-8 years old)
73
Q

reconciliation skills

A

measured in the storybook intervention study

ability to accept whether others’ judgments (that differ from their own) are VALID

expectation that other people will differ from you in ways that are ok

74
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: STUDY RESULTS

A

KINDERGARTENERS thought BOTH Black and White readers would have MORE POSITIVE attitudes towards White people

SECOND-GRADERS thought Black and White would PREFER their RACIAL INGROUP

^this was particularly true for those high in reconciliation skills

STORYBOOK INTERVENTION HAD NO EFFECT ON CHILDREN’S OWN RACIAL ATTITUDES

75
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: did it affect children’s own racial attitudes?

A

no

76
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: the results for the second-graders were particularly strong in which individuals?

A

in those high in reconciliation skills

(recall result: thought the reader would have a racial ingroup preference)

77
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: one reason for its lack of success

A

children mostly assumed that the person reading the book largely SHARED THEIR OWN RACIAL PREJUDICES

young children may not possess the “cognitive structure to engage with an anti-bias perspective”

78
Q

story book intervention to reduce children’s racial biases: what may young children not possess?

A

the “cognitive structure to engage with an anti-bias perspective”

79
Q

the storybook intervention illuminated a HURDLE for effective interventions for kids…

A

must understand and appreciate what COGNITIVE SKILLS (ie. generalizing) are needed for an anti-bias message to be effective

kids didn’t generalize from the cross race friendship in the story to their own outgroup attitudes

80
Q

Frances Aboud/Professor Emerita

A

expert on developmental psychology

specifically in terms of intergroup attitudes, prejudice and bias

currently working on applying these findings in middle and low-income countries

experience with both lab-based and field research on parenting interventions

81
Q

social neuroscience: not just about…

A

localization

for example, categorizing racially ambiguous targets has been shown to lead to GREATER ACTIVITY in the dorsolateral anterior cingulate cortex

but why does this matter? knowing where something happens just for the sake of knowing that fact doesn’t help us in social psychology

82
Q

neuro-scientific methods and timing

A

neuroscience can reveal the TIMING of various psychological PROCESSES

not possible using self-report or even ‘implicit’ measures like the IAT

the IAT is a very fast self-report, but it still requires some time for completing a behaviour response (ie. pressing computer key)

83
Q

timing: neuroscience methods can bypass…

A

behavioural delays

reveal the TRUE TIME COURSE of various processes

84
Q

neuroscience and timing: refresher from social categorization

A

White participants passively viewed images of male and female Black and White people

some categorized images based on GENDER, others based on RACE

ERPs revealed that:
a) race is processed within 100 ms
b) gender is processed within 200 ms

85
Q

IAT behaviour (categorization decision) occurs at how many ms?

A

500 ms

FACE ONSET

100 ms: N100/social category detection

P200: goal-directed attention to category

200 ms

N200: category conflict & response selection

300 ms

400 ms

500 ms: BEHAVIOUR

without neuroscience, we wouldn’t be able to determine the things that happen before 500 ms

86
Q

from ERP findings, what can we conclude about social categorization?

A

social categorization is FAST

and therefore likely AUTOMATIC

87
Q

IMPLICATIONS of the ERP findings that social categorization is FAST/AUTOMATIC

A

larger implications for thinking about how such processes COULD or COULDN’T ever be CONSCIOUSLY CONTROLLED

social categorization may occur so quickly that finding a way to STOP the process is unrealistic

better to focus on how to LESSEN any potentially NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS of automatic categorization

88
Q

since social categorization may occur so quickly, we should focus our efforts where?

A

on how to lessen any negative implications of automatic categorization

instead of trying to stop it

89
Q

social neuroscience can use the larger literature in COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE to show…

A

connections between various processes

this info can advance theory

can lead to new insights into how such processes operate

90
Q

neurosynth: leveraging cognitive neuroscience literature

A

neurosynth gives you info about studies that have examined a SPECIFIC BRAIN AREA

type a brain area into neurosynth

comes up with TYPES OF TASKS that elicit activation in certain parts of brain

wide variety of studies that don’t have a ton in common, but that activate the same brain area

91
Q

although two tasks may seem very different, if they activate the same part of the brain…

A

there must be some similarity across them

92
Q

neurosynth uses what kind of data?

A

fMRI

93
Q

connections between processes: N200

A

N200 has been associated with:

a) RESPONSE SELECTION
b) CONFLICT PROCESSES

because it originates in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

typical finding of larger N200 response to ingroup targets in race categorization tasks may reflect RESPONSE CONFLICT associated with making an ingroup classification

94
Q

N200 - typical finding of larger N200 response to ingroup targets in race categorization may reflect…

A

response conflict associated with making an ingroup classification

we arrived at this information through realizing that N200 has been associated in other work with RESPONSE SELECTION and CONFLICT PROCESSES because it originates in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

95
Q

just as intergroup neuroscience can show connections between different types of psychological processes, it can also be informative…

A

by taking the REVERSE approach

how can neuroscience tease apart processes that appear to be similar?

96
Q

differences within processes: how the brain treats STEREOTYPES versus PREJUDICE STUDY setup

A

stereotypes and prejudice are distinct but related constructs

  1. on each trial, White participants saw TWO FACES that were either:

a) both Black
b) both White
c) one Black, one White

(analyses only focus on the White-Black trials)

  1. in some blocks, they made a STEREOTYPICAL JUDGMENT

a) “which person is more athletic?”

in other blocks, they made a PREJUDICIAL JUDGMENT

a) “which person would you want to have as a friend?”

  1. after forced-choice task in fMRI, participants then completed 2 IATs

a) measured ease with which Black and White faces could be paired with words related to ‘MENTAL’ (educated, smart, genius) versus words related to ‘PHYSICAL’ (athletic, agile)

97
Q

differences within processes: how the brain treats STEREOTYPES versus PREJUDICE STUDY results

A

one brain region was consistently MORE ACTIVATED during FRIENDSHIP (prejudice) than trait (stereotype) trials

a different region was consistently MORE ACTIVATED during TRAIT than friendship trials

so diff brain areas are more activated when making stereotype versus prejudice judgments

98
Q

differences within processes: how the brain treats STEREOTYPES versus PREJUDICE STUDY follow-up analyses

A

found that one brain region was DIFFERENTIALLY associated with the 2 IAT scores

depending on the JUDGMENT that participants were making

  1. during FRIENDSHIP trials, activation in the left temporal pole was MORE ASSOCIATED with EVALUATIVE IAT scores
    (good/bad - prejudice)
  2. during ATHLETIC trials, activation in left temporal pole was more associated with STEREOTYPE IAT scores
    (mental-physical)
99
Q

a final benefit of neuroscience approaches

A

can be used as way of RESOLVING competing PREDICTIONS/PERSPECTIVES

that wouldn’t be able to be resolve using other methods

100
Q

racial paralysis

A

where people high in motivation to not appear prejudiced work hard to avoid cross-racial comparisons

101
Q

racial paralysis study SETUP

A

task was similar to stereotype/prejudice IAT fMRI study, with ONE KEY DIFF:

participants were given option to indicates they had NO GUT FEELING

^ they could OPT OUT of making the judgment

102
Q

racial paralysis study RESULTS

A

participants were MORE LIKELY to “opt out” of trials involving FACES OF DIFF RACES

particularly when making judgments related to STEREOTYPICAL traits
ie. intelligent, hardworking

103
Q

racial paralysis study OPEN QUESTION

A

what drives this opt-out behaviour?

is it about lack of cross-race familiarity?

or is it more to do with efforts to regulate prejudice?

104
Q

racial paralysis study - fMRI found greater activation where?

A

in the DLPFC

for CROSS-RACE over same-race trials

EVEN when participants “opted out”

BUT this was PARTICULARLY TRUE for when judgments were STEREOTYPE-RELEVANT (honest, intelligent, reliable) versus stereotype-irrelevant

105
Q

racial paralysis study - greater DLPFC activation was particularly true when?

A

for cross-race trials

when they were stereotype-relevant (honest, intelligent, reliable)

106
Q

racial paralysis study - the brain region that was more active during CROSS-RACE and STEREOTYPICAL judgments is implicated in…

A
  1. SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS
  2. REGULATION of BEHAVIOURS/JUDGMENTS governed by strong SOCIAL/MORAL NORMS

implications of these regions in cross-race decisions offers support for our account that the FEAR OF APPEARING BIASED evoked by such situations leads to…

CONFLICT, greater REFLECTION and a resulting tendency to OPT-OUT

107
Q

racial paralysis study - implications of the activated brain regions

A

(activates areas involved in SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS and BEHAVIOUR/JUDGMENT REGULATION)

implies that regions used in cross-race decisions offers support for idea that FEAR of APPEARING BIASED leads to conflict, greater reflection and tendency to opt out

108
Q

racial paralysis study - fear of appearing biased leads to…

A

a. conflict

b. greater reflection

c. tendency to opt out

109
Q

what study looked at the more basic process by which people decide WHO IS and WHO ISN’T a group member?

A

study where researchers used task to DISENTANGLE whether people rely more on

a. similarity
b. group structure

when evaluating new people as potential group members

110
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: SETUP

A
  1. participants first indicated their OWN BELIEF about a number of policy issues (ie. death penalty support)
  2. then they learned about policy beliefs for THREE OTHER TARGETS
  3. then they had to ALIGN with one of the targets by choosing to side with them on an unknown policy position
111
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: participants had to align with one of the targets by choosing…

A

to side with them on an unknown policy position

essentially, had to think about which of the two would be the most like themselves when deciding on an unknown policy

112
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: what affected people’s target choice?

A

across conditions, the LATENT STRUCTURE of people’s preferences made it MORE or LESS EASY to form a group with one of the targets

as the distractor (target C) becomes more similar to target B, preferences for target B increase

like C becomes a stepping stone to one of the other targets - can see a group forming

113
Q

dyadic similarity

A

all that matters is similarity when choosing between A and B

so if A and B are equally far from you, probability of choosing either one is equal

114
Q

latent structure

A

using the behaviour of others to infer a consensus or group structure

so if C is between you and B, leaving A off to the side, you’re more likely to align with B

115
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: the study design can help TEASE APART…

A

whether DYADIC SIMILARITY or LATENT STRUCTURE is at work

do we only use similarity when making alignment decisions?

or do we take larger group structure/consensus into account?

116
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: fMRI analyses found that…

A

greater use of this LATENT STRUCTURE approach was more strongly associated with activity in the RIGHT ANTERIOR INSULA

other studies have found this same brain region to be key to more GENERAL STRUCTURAL LEARNING tasks

^non social tasks! like in processing components of a sentence in a reading task

117
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: results suggest that GENERALIZED GROUP CONCEPTS…

A

generalized group concepts rely on DOMAIN-GENERAL CIRCUITRY associated with:

a. latent structure learning
b. encoding of stimuli’s functional significance

these neuroscience findings speak to some core issues of the “cognitive perspective” on stereotypes and prejudice

seems like the way we think about people is highly similar to the way we think in general

118
Q

study about evaluating potential group members: shows that the way we think about people…

A

is highly similar to the way we think in general

nothing special about social group decision making in terms of the neural mechanisms they’re recruiting

119
Q

future directions for intergroup neuroscience

A

still a young field

research is increasing rapidly

has benefitted from new tech and measures

new developments in neuroscience tech are leading to new possibilities for WHAT can be studied from a neuroscientific perspective

120
Q

2 new tech developments for intergroup neuroscience

A
  1. MOBILE MEASUREMENT

a. portable/less invasive ERPs

  1. INTER-BRAIN SYNCHRONY

a. tracking multiple people’s brains at the same time
b. are they engaging the same areas?
c. does common engagement result in higher harmony/better team performance?
d. all done in real time

121
Q

inter-brain synchrony in teams predicts…

A

collective performance

122
Q

Mina Cikara

A

prof at Harvard

expert on prejudice, particular focus on how neuroscience can inform intergroup processes

winner of 3 early career research awards for work on intergroup relations

author on 2020 paper investigating how learning related to social groups is connected to the anterior insula

123
Q

social network analysis (SNA)

A

process of investigating social structures through the use of networks

124
Q

how does SNA characterize individuals and relationships?

A

characterizes networked structures/individuals as NODES

relationships between nodes are TIES, EDGES or LINKS

125
Q

node

A

entity in a network (person, group)

dot

126
Q

edge

A

aka tie, link

connection between nodes

line

127
Q

directed edge

A

edge that has an ORIENTATION

ie. an arrow indicating popularity

ie. indicates reciprocal versus non-reciprocal relationship

128
Q

distance

A

smallest number of edges needed to connect two nodes

129
Q

centrality

A

importance of a node in the network

ie. how many edges a node contains

ie. how many cross-group edges a node has

essentially, what amount of leverage does a single node have in a network?

130
Q

advantages of SNA

A
  1. provides insight that people may not be able to self-report

ie. who is actually most popular versus who is perceived as most popular

  1. can identify popular nodes for interventions
131
Q

limitations of SNA

A
  1. analyses are only as good as how much of the network you cover
  2. people belong to multiple networks simultaneously (work, family, school, clubs, sports etc) so effects in one network may or may not carry over
132
Q

Paluck, Shepherd and Aronow: SNA anti-bullying intervention SETUP

A

used SNA to design and assess effectiveness of anti-bullying intervention

identified SOCIAL REFERENTS: kids in school network that had many connections to other kids

reasoned these kids would receive more attention and be looked to for info about group norms

social referents received intervention

throughout intervention, were encouraged to become PUBLIC FACE of opposition to these conflicts

notably, the intervention lacked educational/persuasive unit regarding adult-defined problems at school

133
Q

social referents

A

Paluck anti-bullying intervention

kids in school network that had many connections to other kids

134
Q

SNA anti-bullying intervention SAMPLE

A

56 middle schoolers

randomly assigned to CONTROL and INTERVENTION condition

within intervention condition schools, random sample was selected to receive receive intervention

135
Q

SNA anti-bullying intervention INTERVENTION

A

meeting with research assistant every other week and discussing common conflict behaviours at school

student-led ideas on how to reduce the conflict

were encouraged to become the public face of opposition to these conflict

136
Q

SNA anti-bullying intervention NOTABLE DETAIL

A

the intervention lacked an EDUCATIONAL or PERSUASIVE UNIT regarding adult-defined problems at school

137
Q

SNA anti-bullying intervention RESULTS

A

schools in treatment condition SAW LESS CONFLICT than those in control

less disciplinary events for peer conflict

results were presented visually using SNA

138
Q

NA anti-bullying intervention RESULTS WERE MORE EFFECTIVE WHEN…

A

intervention was more effective when a GREATER NUMBER of the ‘seed’ students in intervention condition were SOCIAL REFERENTS

as seed students GAIN CENTRALITY, get a larger reduction in peer conflict

139
Q

Parkinson et al used SNA to do what?

A

to see how people encode social networks AUTOMATICALLY

an entire cohort of business school students were surveyed about their social network (who they liked to spend time with)

140
Q

Parkinson et al SNA setup

A
  1. surveyed whole cohort of business school students about their social network
  2. subset was PASSIVELY SHOWN images of other members of social network while in fMRI

a. faces varied in degree to which they were DISTANT from participant in network (direct connection, friend of friend, friend of friend of friend)

141
Q

Parkinson et al SNA results

A

distance in the SNA was consistently related to ACTIVATION IN 3 BRAIN AREAS

indicates that when encountering familiar individuals, humans may SPONTANEOUSLY retrieve knowledge of WHERE THEY’RE LOCATED relative to oneself

have a mental map of social spaces

142
Q

distributional language analysis

A

reviewing large text bodies from a culture to identify what words are most likely to CO-OCCUR with one another

core assumption: MEANING of a word can be described by the words it co-occurs with

words occurring in similar contexts tend to have similar meanings

ie. “dog” is more similar to “cat” than to “banana”, because of the contexts they appear in

143
Q

advantages of distributional language analysis

A
  1. insight that people may not be able to self-report

ie. what patterns exist in what we read

  1. allows for possible historical analyses for associations that may have existed before modern measures

ie. archival analysis

144
Q

limitations of distributional language analysis

A
  1. needs a LOT of data (tens of millions of words)
  2. may be dependent on the type of text used (subtitles vs Reddit vs Wiki)
  3. can’t know whether text is SUPPORTING or REFLECTING or REFUTING certain associations

a. because simply tracks co-occurrence

ie. “men are better at work” = supporting
ie. “the culture believes men are better at work” - reflecting
ie. “it’s impossible that men are better at work” - refuting

145
Q

across 25 languages, what did Lewis & Lupyan investigate?

A

the association between:

  1. the strength of GENDER-CAREER STEREOTYPE in a distributional language analysis

a. how closely man/career and woman/home co-occur versus the opposite pairing

  1. the strength of GENDER-CAREER IAT effect among participants speaking that language from Project Implicit
146
Q

language may not only reflect pre-existing stereotypes…

A

it may also provide a distinct SOURCE of information for LEARNING ABOUT THEM

147
Q

Lewis & Lupyan 25 languages study RESULTS

A

IMPLICIT (but not explicit) gender associations of participants in a country is correlated with gender associations embedded in the dominant language spoken in that country

148
Q

since studies mapping attitudes onto distributional language analysis are…

A

correlational

it’s hard to determine causation

to what extend does the language we make/see CREATE implicit gender stereotypes?

to what extent do our implicit gender stereotypes CREATE changes in our language?

149
Q

big data

A

social science approach

refers to an ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS that uses a dataset TOO LARGE TO CODE BY HAND

instead relies on AUTOMATED DATA COLLECTION and ANALYSIS

ie. web-scraping of tweets

150
Q

advantages of big data approach

A
  1. same strengths as archival research, but with greater scope
  2. often measures impactful, real-world behaviour
  3. access to large amounts of data that make findings unlikely to be a fluke
151
Q

limitations of big data approach

A
  1. same limitations as archival research but now with less ability to notice possible errors in data collection
  2. analysis dependent on data that’s available
  3. hard to get at causality
152
Q

big data and medical records setup

A

big data approach applied to medical records: specifically TREATMENT ALGORITHMS

worked with large hospital to track treatment records of 50 k patients over 3 years

specifically investigated enrolment in “high risk care management program” which provided ADDITIONAL RESOURCES to patients with complex health needs

enrolment in program is primarily determined by ‘RISK ALGORITHM’ based on patient records

153
Q

big data and medical records: what did enrolment in program depend on?

A

a Risk Algorithm

based on patient records

higher scores led to AUTOMATIC ENROLMENT in the program

154
Q

big data and medical records RESULTS

A

even when Black and White patients had the SAME RISK SCORE determined by the algorithm…

Black patients had WORSE OBJECTIVE HEALTH MEASURES

ie. for a Black and White patient to earn the same risk score to gain eligibility, Black patients had 26% more chronic illnesses

155
Q

big data and medical records: for Bl and Wh patient to earn the same risk score…

A

Black patients typically had 25% more chronic illnesses

156
Q

big data and medical records: unlike most instances of research on algorithmic bias…

A

researchers had DIRECT ACCESS to how algorithm was working

it DOESN’T factor in patient race

yet Wh patients are given worse health scores than equally sick Bl patients - prioritizing their admittance to treatment program

157
Q

big data and medical records: what did they find the algorithm was using?

A

HEALTH COSTS (how much patients spend to maintain their healthy) to predict overall health

but there’s a difference between “receiving health care” (health costs) and “needing health care” (objective health

158
Q

big data and medical records: what introduced a racial disparity?

A

treating health costs as a proxy for health needs

Black patients generate less healthcare costs than White patients

because of a variety of SEC reasons

159
Q

2 future directions and issues

A
  1. intersectionality
  2. algorithmic bias
160
Q

intersectionality

A

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, gender

regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage

a theoretical approach based on such a premise

161
Q

intersectionality: NY stop and frisk data setup

A

2006-2012

Black and White men (non-Hispanic)

64-76 inches (don’t differ in height)

photo ID only

1 073 536 valid targets

162
Q

intersectionality: NY stop and frisk data results

A

5’4”: if you’re short, there’s a racial disparity in if you’re stopped and frisked (more Blacks)

5’10”: disparity increases

6’4”: disparity increases even more

163
Q

intersectionality: NY stop and frisk data takeaway

A

if you’re Black in NYC, the taller you are the more negatively it affects you when it comes to stop and frisk

more likely to be stopped and frisked the taller you are

taller height is beneficial for white people, and harmful for black people

164
Q

algorithmic bias

A

systematic and repeatable errors in a computer system that create unfair outcomes

like privileging one arbitrary group of users over others

165
Q

coded bias movie

A

example of algorithmic bias

apartment building that’s being surveilled

speaks about obtrusive tech and AI influencing all kinds of decision making

feeds, ads, view of world is governed by AI

algorithms determine if you get into college, if you’re credit-worthy or not

Apple’s new credit card has been accused of sexist algorithms

Amazon hiring algorithm was found to be biased against women

166
Q

quote about algorithmic biases

A

“the past dwells within our algorithms”

we train algorithms on biased input

ie. current tech employees are mostly men, so algorithms are biased towards selecting men

Psyc 331 (7 decks)

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