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Psyc Flashcards

0
Q

A theory is…

A

a systematic way of organising and explaining observations
- leads to new predictions that can be tested

A good theory:

  • fits the known facts
  • makes new testable predictions
  • is falsifiable
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1
Q

Goals of scientific method…

A
  • observe
  • understand
  • apply and control
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2
Q

5 steps in scientific method:

A
  1. formulate a testable hypothesis
  2. design a study
  3. conduct the study and collect the data
  4. Analyse and evaluate the data
  5. report the findings
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3
Q

Bias - Demand Characteristics

A
  • participants respond in the way they think the experimenter wants them to respond
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4
Q

Bias- Placebo effects

A

participants condition improves because they believe the procedures will help them

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5
Q

Experimenter bias

A

the tendency of experimenters to let their expectancies alter the way they treat their participants

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6
Q

Controlling bias

A

single-blind studies - either the experimenter or participant is unaware of the purpose of the study

double-blind study - both experimenter and participant are blind to the purpose of the study

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7
Q

Quasi experimental designs

A
  • share logic and features of experimental design but participants are not randomly assigned
  • used when studying individual differences, or due to constraints
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8
Q

Compliance

A

agreeing to a request from someone who does not have the authority to make you obey

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9
Q

Foot in the door technique

A

A person makes a small request, then makes a larger related request

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10
Q

Power of commitment

A
  • once a choice has been made people feel pressure (from themselves and others) to act consistently with that commitment even if it becomes increasingly costly
  • foot in the door is a good example of how we can feel the power of commitment.
  • once we make a commitment we tend to add new reasons to justify the decision
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11
Q

Low balling

A

A person makes what seems to be a reasonable request, and then reveals a hidden cost afterwards

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12
Q

optimal conditions for compliance

A

commitment can be increase by

  • getting commitment in writing
  • getting people to make public commitments
  • making people feel like the commitment was freely chosen
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13
Q

the power of reciprication

A
  • one of the most powerful norms is society is that if someone gives you something you give something back
  • people feel compelled even by a stranger
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14
Q

Door in the face technique

A

a person makes a ridiculously large request and then follows it up with a smaller, more reasonable request

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15
Q

Contrast effects

A

humans are better at making relative judgements than absolute judgements - when preceded by a very large request, subsequent requests seem more reasonable

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16
Q

Obedience

A

commands us to change our behaviour and we do

Milgram - electric shock study

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17
Q

Key contributing factors for obedience

A
  • high status of the authority figure
  • absence of a clear cut point for disobedience
  • belief that authority figure will take responsibility for actions
  • barriers for empathy for victim (obedience is reduced the greater the potential for empathy)
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18
Q

Attitudes

A 
an attitude is an association between an act or object and an evaluation 
3 components:
- beliefs 
- feelings
- behavioural tendencies
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19
Q

Value is a

A

broad abstract goal that lack a specific referent point

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20
Q

opinions are…

A

verbal manifestations of an attitude

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21
Q

schemas are…

A
  • cognitive structures that represent knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus.
  • formed on the basis of past experience
  • not necessarily affective whereas attitudes suggest how people feel about objects
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22
Q

attitude change focus on 4 factors

A
  • communicator
  • message
  • the audience
  • the channel
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23
Q

Non verbal communication

A

definition: the transfer of information by means other than words
- 60 - 65% of info and meaning is communicated nonverbally
- nonverbal communication becomes greater when making judgements about a persons leadership ability
- reliance on nonverbal s greater when nonverbal and verbal channels conflict
- children place greater reliance on verbal cues than adults
- words communicate facts. nonverbals - emotion, attitude and interpersonal information

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24
Q

Emblems

A 
= language 
can be used to:
- insult
- give directions
- greetings
- signalling departure
- replying 
- more subtle and complex info
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25
Q

Illustrators

A

nonverbals that help complement or clarify the meaning of the words

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26
Q

Facial Expression

A
  • express emotion

- deeply ingrained, sometimes difficult to inhibit

27
Q

6 basic emotions

A
  • happiness
  • suprise
  • sadness
  • fear
  • disgust
  • anger
28
Q

theories of emotional expressions

A
  1. Universalists - argue that emotional expressions are innate - developed through evolution
  2. Neurocultural - emotional expression is pre-wired but through experience people learn culture specific rules
29
Q

cross cultural difference

A
  • emblems
  • eye contact
  • posture
  • vocal features
30
Q

Deception:

A

is a prevalent and adaptive element of communication. It can be used for a number of reasons (altruistic - exploitative)

in detecting deception
- vocal channel is more accurate than visual
- voice is harder to control than face
however may be the micro-expressions that people cannot control

31
Q

How do liars behave?

A

Facts:

  • pupil dilation
  • higher blink rate
  • more speech errors
  • more hesitations
  • higher pitch
32
Q

Myths about liars

A
  • more smiling
  • longer latencies
  • more shrugs
  • increase head and body movement
  • longer statements
  • faster speech
33
Q

Prejudice:

A

unfavourable attitudes towards a social group and its members

3 components

  1. Cognitive - beliefs about the attitude
  2. Affective - strong feelins about the group
  3. Behavioural - intentions to behave in a negative way
34
Q

Sexism

2 types

A

Hostile Sexism: “women exaggerate problems at work”

Benevolent sexism: “In a disaster, women ought to be rescued before men”

35
Q

Racism:

A

turn of the century it was assumed that races differed in terms of intelligence, sophistication and morality

Aversive Racism: many people subconsciously harbour negative feelings towards minorities all the same

36
Q

Dependency theory

A
  • psychoanalytical theory (FREUD)
  • a baby loves his mother because she satisfies his needs
  • infant motivation - food
37
Q

Harlow (monkey) study

The crucial element in forming attachment relationships in primates is….

A

contact comfort

38
Q

Attachment theory

A

John Bowlby - psychoanalyst

a baby loves its mother because she provides security
- infant motivation - feeling of safety

39
Q

Attachment Classification

‘Secure’

A

(55% of infants)

  • baby uses mum as base
  • explores after warm up period
  • prefers mum to stranger
  • distressed at separation
  • seeks contact at reunion

mums are more sensitive
face to face time
feeding on schedule
quick response to crying

40
Q

Attachment Classification

‘Anxious Avoidant’

A

(30% of infants)

  • infant tends to ignore mum
  • explores freely
  • less avoidant of strangers
  • no stress at separation
  • no proximity seeking at reunion

mums more likely to report disliking contact with infants

41
Q

Attachment Classification

‘Anxious Ambivalent’

A

(15% of infants)

  • cant cope in strange situations
  • little exploration, tend to cling to mum
  • prone hysteria at separation
  • aggressive on reunion

mums more likely to be inconsistent in their responses to infant

42
Q

infant temperment

A
  • easy
  • difficult
  • slow to warm up
43
Q

infant reflexes

A
  • moro
  • grasping
  • rooting
  • sucking
  • stepping
44
Q

babies prefer…

A
  • their maternal language
  • to look at human faces
  • babies can distinguish b/w male and female faces
45
Q

when you touch an infants cheek, they will turn their head and open their mouth ready to suck. This is called the _____ reflex?

A

rooting

46
Q

periods of development characterised by special sensitivity to specific types of learning that shape the capacity for future development, are referred to as…..

A

critical periods

47
Q

Habituation is used in infant research to….

A

test differentiation between stimuli

48
Q

moral development

‘social learning theory’

A
  • children learn to be moral by imitating adults and being rewarded/punished for their behaviour
  • parents are the major influence

Problems with this theory:

  • sometimes children can be more moral than parents
  • also there are stages of development where children are thinking about whats right and wrong but arent reasoning like adults
49
Q

Piaget Cognitive Developmental Stages

A 
- Sensorimotor (birth-2) 
		reflexes, object perminance, mental representations
- Peroperational (2-7)
		egocentric speech, transitional logic
- Concrete Operational (7-11)
		Coordination of 2 perspectives
- Formal Operational (adolescents - adulthood)
		scientific thought
50
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development

A

heteronomous morality (age 4-8)

  • “subject to another’s law”
  • laws/rules are facts, nonnegotiable
  • outcome of acts most important

autonomous morality (age 8-adult)

  • “subject to one’s own law”
  • laws relative and socially constructed
  • intention behind acts is most important
51
Q

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

A
  • 6 stages in 3 areas
  • Preconventional morality (0-9) stages 1 and 2
    individual perspective: concrete, egocentric
    ethics of self intrest and personally advantageous
  • Conventional morality (adolescents and adults) stages 3 & 4
    member of society perspective, interpersonal orientation
    believes in moral rules learned
  • Postconventional Morality (minority of adults) 5 & 6
    universal, prior to society perspective
    views values of the time as conventions
52
Q

morality is concerned with concepts of….

A

harm, welfare, and fairness

53
Q

Social convention is concerned with….

A

social order and organisation

54
Q

Morality
Roles of the parents
4 types

A

Discipline: harsh physical discipline linked to hostility and aggression in children. no effect on moral development

Authoritarian Parents: Children seem to maintain punishment/reward oreintation

Indulgent and Neglectful parents: children tend to lack social responsibility and have problems with authority

Authoritative Parents: children tend to be socially responsible and altruistic

55
Q

Social Development:

A

“theory of mind”

the ability to predict and explain behaviour with reference to peoples internal mental states

56
Q

Impression Formation

A

the process by which people combine information about others to make overall judgements

2 ways of forming impressions

  • algerbratically
  • configurationally
57
Q

Algerbratic formation of impressions

A
  • mechanical combination of info about a person
58
Q

Configuration formation of impressions

A
  • based on Gestait principles
  • the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
  • get overall impression
  • central and peripheral traits
59
Q

what is a heuristic

A

heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that guide decision making

60
Q

availability heuristic

A
  • people judge on an events frequency, be the ease with which they can bring to mind
61
Q

representative heuristic

A
  • people judge likelihood of group members by comparing features of a particular case to the prototype
62
Q

Attribution:

A

the process by which people infer the cause of their own and others behaviours

  • we don’t passively observe behaviour, we are motivated by the need to predict and control the environment.
63
Q

We attribute behaviour to either…

A
  • situational factors: stimuli in the environment

- dispositional factors: individual personality characteristics

64
Q

Kelly’s 1973 Covariation Model

A

principle: we attribute behaviour to the cause with which it covaries over time

Person Attribution: varies across people - this person preforms this behaviour but no others do
- LOW CONSENSUS

Target Attribution: varies across targets - towards this target but not others
- HIGH DISTINCTIVNESS

65
Q

Errors in attribution

A
  • attribution is highly rational process
  • evidence of bias

Fundamental Attribution Error:
- tendency to attribute another persons behaviour to his own disposition rather than the situation

Actor-Observer bias:
- tendency to attribute own behaviour to external factors and others behaviours to dispositional causes

66
Q

Motivation and Attributional biases

A

Self serving bias

  • tendency to attribute successes to stable internal factors and failures to temporary, external factors
    - to enhance self esteem
    - for self preservation

False consensus effect:
tendency to see ones own behaviour as typical

Psychology (1 decks)

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