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AP Psychology > Psychology Cards > Flashcards

Psychology Cards Flashcards

1
Q

ablation

A

removal or destruction of brain tissue in a surgical procedure

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2
Q

absolute threshold

A

intensity level at which one can detect a stimulus 50% of the time

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3
Q

accommodation

A

the process of modifying a schema to account for new information; the process of the eyes lens changing shape in order to focus on distant or near objects

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4
Q

acetylcholine (ACh)

A

a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory and muscle movement

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5
Q

need for achievement

A

desire for accomplishment, mastery of people, ideas, things, desire for reaching a high standard

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6
Q

achievement test

A

a test that assesses what one has learned

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7
Q

acquisition

A

a process in classical conditioning by which the association of a neutral stimulus with a natural stimulus is first established

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8
Q

action potential

A

the electrical process by which information is transmitted the length of an axon

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9
Q

activation synthesis

A

the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons

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10
Q

adrenal gland

A

source of the hormone norepinephrine which affects arousal

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11
Q

affective disorders

A

psychological disturbances of mood

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12
Q

need for affiliation

A

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships

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13
Q

after image

A

an image that remains after a stimulus is removed, especially one in which the colors are reversed

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14
Q

agonists

A

drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters

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15
Q

alcohol

A

the most frequently used and abused CNS depressant in most cultures; its use affects mood, judgment, cognition

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16
Q

all-or-nothing

A

description of the action of neurons when firing

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17
Q

alpha waves

A

seen when an individual is in a relaxed, unfocused, yet still awake state

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18
Q

amygdala

A

limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger

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19
Q

anal stage

A

Freud’s pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions

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20
Q

anorexia (nervosa)

A

an eating disorder in which one starves oneself even though significantly underweight

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21
Q

antagonist

A

drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters

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22
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia; eg, see in a boxer who suffers a severe blow to the head and loses memory for events after the blow

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23
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier’s forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby, injuring him

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24
Q

antisocial personality disorder

A

psychological disorder in which one demonstrates a lack of conscience

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25
Q

anvil

A

the middle of the three ossicles

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26
Q

aphasia

A

impairment of language usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere

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27
Q

arousal

A

condition in which the sympathetic nervous system is in control

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28
Q

artificial intelligence

A

a subdiscipline of computer science that attempts to simulate human thinking

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29
Q

assimilation

A

interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema

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30
Q

association areas

A

areas of the cerebral cortex which have no specific motor or sensory repsonsibilities, but rather are involved in thinking, memory and judgment

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31
Q

associative learning

A

learning in which an organism learns that certain events occur together, such as my cat knowing that she will be fed when I get home from work

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32
Q

attachment

A

theory developed by Harlow; types include secure and insecure

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33
Q

attitude

A

a relatively enduring evaluation of a person or thing; Asch demonstrated that this doesn’t always match one’s behavior

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34
Q

attraction

A

feeling of being drawn toward another and desiring the company of a person

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35
Q

attribution theory

A

a way of explaining others’ behavior by either one’s disposition or one’s situation

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36
Q

auditory canal

A

the area that sound waves pass through to reach the eardrum

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37
Q

authoritarian

A

style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules

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38
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm

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39
Q

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

A

Erikson’s stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

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40
Q

availability heuristic

A

this cognitive shortcut features the idea that events which are vividly in memory seem to be more common

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41
Q

axon

A

extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands

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42
Q

babbling

A

stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds

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43
Q

basic research

A

scientific investigations intended to expand the knowledge base

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44
Q

applied research

A

scientific investigations intended to solve practical problems

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45
Q

behavioral

A

perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states

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46
Q

belief perseverance

A

situation in which one’s beliefs continue despite the fact that the ground for the beliefs have been discredited

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47
Q

big 5 personality factors

A

openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

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48
Q

binocular cues

A

retinal disparity and convergence which enable people to determine depth using both eyes

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49
Q

biological

A

perspective that stresses links between biology and behavior

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50
Q

bipolar cells

A

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

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51
Q

bipolar disorder

A

mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes

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52
Q

blind spot

A

point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there

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53
Q

bottom-up processing

A

analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

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54
Q

hemispheres

A

we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other

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55
Q

brainstem

A

oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing

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56
Q

bulimia

A

eating disorder characterized by excessive eating followed by purging

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57
Q

bystander effect

A

the tendency to not offer help when needed if others are present who do not offer help

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58
Q

Cannon-Baird

A

theory of emotion that says that a stimulus causes simultaneously psyiological arousal and the subjective experience of an emotion

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59
Q

case study

A

scientific investigation in which a single subject is studied in great detail

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60
Q

CAT scan

A

a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography

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61
Q

catatonic

A

a form of schizophrenia in which the patient has muscle immobility and does not move

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62
Q

catharsis

A

release of aggressive energy through activity or fantasy

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63
Q

Central Nervous System

A

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

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64
Q

cerebellum

A

brain structure that controls well-learned motor activities like riding a bike

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65
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain’s center for information processing and control

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66
Q

chaining

A

using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills

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67
Q

chunking

A

organizing units of information into manageable units such as memorizing a phone number as three groups of information 248-555-1212

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68
Q

circadian rhythm

A

the daily biological rhythms that occur in a 24-hour period

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69
Q

classical conditioning

A

method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus

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70
Q

client-centered therapy

A

developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard

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71
Q

clinical

A

this type of psychologist studies, assesses and treats those with psychological disorders

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72
Q

cochlea

A

this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells

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73
Q

cognitive dissonance theory

A

this says that we will suffer discomfort and act to change the situation when our thoughts and actions seem to be inconsistent

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74
Q

cognitive

A

perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc

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75
Q

cognitive therapy

A

treatment for psychological disorders that centers on changing self-defeating thinking

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76
Q

collective unconscious

A

Jung’s theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture’s most basic elements

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77
Q

color blindness

A

a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors

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78
Q

collectivist

A

this adjective describes cultures in which the individual is less important than the group

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79
Q

concrete operations

A

Piaget’s stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age

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80
Q

concurrent validity

A

the extent to which two measures of the same trait or ability agree

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81
Q

conditioned response

A

in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus

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82
Q

conditioning

A

generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this

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83
Q

conduction

A

one type of hearing impairment caused by mechanical problems in the ear structures

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84
Q

cones

A

neurons in the retina that are responsible for color vision

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85
Q

confirmation bias

A

a tendency to search for information that supports one’s preconceptions

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86
Q

conformity

A

adjusting behavior to meet a group’s standard

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87
Q

confounding variable

A

extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable

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88
Q

consciousness

A

one’s awareness of one’s environment and oneself.

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89
Q

consummate love

A

includes passion, intimacy and committment

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90
Q

control group

A

subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable

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91
Q

convergent thinking

A

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

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92
Q

cornea

A

the transparent outer covering of the eye

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93
Q

corpus callosum

A

the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate

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94
Q

correlation

A

the degree of relationship between two variables

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95
Q

correlation coefficient

A

a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship

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96
Q

cross-sectional

A

type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time

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97
Q

debriefing

A

giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed

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98
Q

defense mechanisms

A

Freud’s processes by which individuals express uncomfortable emotions in disguised ways

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99
Q

deindividuation

A

when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group’s identity

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100
Q

deinstitutionalization

A

moving people with psychological or developmental disabilities from highly structured institutions to home- or community-based settings

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101
Q

delta waves

A

largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep

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102
Q

delusion

A

irrational, highly improbable belief

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103
Q

dendrite

A

a branch off the cell body of a neuron that receives new information from other neurons

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104
Q

denial

A

a defense mechanism in which unpleasant thought or desires are ignored or excluded from consciousness

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105
Q

dependent variable

A

the variable that the experimenter measures at the end of the experiment

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106
Q

depressant

A

any agent that reduces the activity of the CNS

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107
Q

depth perception

A

an ability that we exercise by using both monocular and binocular cues

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108
Q

difference threshold

A

also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected

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109
Q

diffusion of responsibility

A

reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect

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110
Q

discrimination

A

treating members of different races, religions, ethnic groups differently; usually associated with prejudice

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111
Q

displacement

A

defense mechanism in which unwanted feelings are directed towards a different object

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112
Q

dispositional attribution

A

assuming that another’s behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones

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113
Q

dissociative identity disorder

A

also called multiple personality disorder

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114
Q

dissociative fugue

A

disorder in which one travels away from home and is unable to remember details of his past, including often his identity

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115
Q

divergent thinking

A

a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems

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116
Q

dopamine

A

a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson’s disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it)

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117
Q

double blind

A

this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group

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118
Q

dreams

A

occur most often during REM sleep; may be caused by activation-synthesis, or may be a way of cementing memories

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119
Q

drive reduction

A

theory that claims that behavior is driven by a desire to lessen drives resulting from needs that disrupt homeostasis

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120
Q

DSM

A

initials of the American Psychiatric Association’s book that lists diagnostic criteria for many psychological disorders

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121
Q

dyslexia

A

a learning disability that results in difficulty reading and writing

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122
Q

eardrum

A

also called the tympanic membrane

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123
Q

echoic

A

term that describes memory of sounds

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124
Q

EEG

A

initials of a method of representation of brain waves

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125
Q

ego

A

the Latin for “I”; in Freud’s theories, the mediator between the demands of the id and the superego

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126
Q

egocentrism

A

in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does

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127
Q

Electra complex

A

counterpart to the Oedipus complex for females

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128
Q

electroconvulsive therapy

A

a treatment in which low level electric current is passed through the brain

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129
Q

embryo

A

early stage of human development, when cells have begun to differentiate

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130
Q

emotion theories

A

James-Lange, Cannon-Baird and Singer-Schachter are three

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131
Q

encoding

A

conversion of sensory information into a form that can be retained as a memory

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132
Q

endocrine system

A

the slow messenger system of the body; produces hormones that affect many bodily functions

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133
Q

endorphins

A

neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain

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134
Q

episodic

A

describes a type of memory that includes specific events that one has personally experienced

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135
Q

evolutionary

A

perspective that stresses the value of behavior in Darwinian terms

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136
Q

experiment

A

form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another

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137
Q

experimental group

A

subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered

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138
Q

explicit

A

term that describes memories that can be consciously recalled

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139
Q

external locus of control

A

this term describes what you have if your behaviors are driven mainly by outside forces

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140
Q

extinction

A

in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

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141
Q

extraversion

A

one of the Big 5, a personality trait orients one’s interests toward the outside world and other people, rather than inward

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142
Q

extrinsic

A

term that describes motivations that drive behavior in order to gain rewards from outside forces

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143
Q

false consensus

A

a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don’t

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144
Q

feature detection

A

feature detection

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145
Q

fetal alcohol syndrome

A

sometimes the result in a child of the mother’s excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation

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146
Q

fetus

A

a stage in human development extending from about ten weeks after conception to birth

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147
Q

figure-ground

A

refers to our ability to distinguish foreground from background in visual images

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148
Q

fixed interval

A

describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday

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149
Q

fixed ratio

A

describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced

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150
Q

flashbulb

A

term describes a vivid memory of a personally significant and emotionalevent

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151
Q

fluid

A

term describes a type of intelligence used to cope with novel situations and problems

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152
Q

crystallized

A

term describes a type of intelligence which applies cultural knowledge to solving problems

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153
Q

foot-in-the-door

A

term describes a phenomenon in which people who agree to a small request are more likely to later agree to a larger request

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154
Q

formal operations

A

One of Piaget’s stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking

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155
Q

fovea

A

the central focus area of the retina

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156
Q

frequency

A

theory of hearing which states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the tone’s frequency

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157
Q

functional fixedness

A

the tendency to think about things only in terms of their usual uses; can be a hindrance to creative thinking

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158
Q

functionalism

A

William James’s school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors

159
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

tendency to attribute others’ behavior to their dispositions and our own behaviors to our situations

160
Q

ganglion cells

A

their axons form the optic nerve

161
Q

general adaptation syndrome

A

Seyle’s concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion

162
Q

generativity vs. stagnation

A

Erikson’s stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one’s potential and doing public service

163
Q

gene

A

made of DNA, it is the basic building block of heredity

164
Q

genital stage

A

Freud’s stage of psychosexual development when adult sexuality is prominent

165
Q

gestalt

A

German word for “whole”, it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete

166
Q

glial cell

A

this acts as a support system for neurons

167
Q

grammar

A

a system of rules in a language

168
Q

social norm

A

a group’s determination of socially acceptable behavior

169
Q

group polarization

A

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

170
Q

groupthink

A

tendency for group members to think alike with certainty of correctness, biased perceptions of outgroup members, and generally defective decision-making processes

171
Q

hallucination

A

a false sensory perception that seems to be real but for which there is not an actual external stimulus

172
Q

hallucinogen

A

a substance capable of producing a sensory effect in the absence of real external sensory stimuli

173
Q

heritability

A

the extent to which differences in a group of a characteristic is due to genetics, not environment

174
Q

heuristic

A

a useful, but unprovable, cognitive shortcut, such as a “rule of thumb”

175
Q

hierarchy of needs

A

Maslow’s theory of the most important motivations people have

176
Q

hindsight bias

A

the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted

177
Q

hippocampus

A

limbic system component associated with memory

178
Q

homeostasis

A

the steady, stable state that is the body’s regulatory processes try to maintain

179
Q

hormone

A

chemical substance secreted by endocrine glands that affect body processes

180
Q

humanist

A

perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential

181
Q

hunger

A

it is regulated by the lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalamus

182
Q

hypnosis

A

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain events or emotions will occur

183
Q

hypochondriasis

A

a disorder characterized by an unreasonable fear that one has a serious disease

184
Q

hypothalamus

A

limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions

185
Q

hypothesis

A

a prediction of how the an experiment will turn out

186
Q

iconic

A

term that describes the memory of images

187
Q

id

A

in Freud’s conception, the repository of the basic urges toward sex and agression

188
Q

identity vs. role confusion

A

Erikson’s stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

189
Q

imprinting

A

evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching

190
Q

in-group bias

A

tendency to favor one’s own group over other groups

191
Q

incentive

A

an external stimulus that tends to encourage behavior

192
Q

independent

A

type of variable manipulated by the experimenter

193
Q

individualist

A

culture in which the individual is valued more highly than the group

194
Q

industry vs. inferiority

A

Erikson’s stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive

195
Q

inferiority complex

A

Adler’s conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences

196
Q

information processing

A

humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)

197
Q

informed consent

A

agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research

198
Q

initiative vs guilt

A

Erikson’s third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities

199
Q

insanity

A

a legal term describing one’s inability to be responsible for one’s action due to the condition of the mind

200
Q

insight

A

in psychoanalysis, the basic understanding one develops of the underlying sources of emotion or behavioral difficulty

201
Q

insomnia

A

inability to fall asleep or remain asleep long enough for sufficient rest

202
Q

instinct

A

a complex pattern of behavior that is fixed across a species

203
Q

integrity vs despair

A

Erikson’s final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives

204
Q

Intelligence

A

the ability to learn from experience, to use information, to understand things

205
Q

IQ

A

the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized

206
Q

internal locus of control

A

people with this tned to respond to internal states and desires; they tend to see their successes as the result of their own efforts

207
Q

interneurons

A

cells in the spinal cord through which reflexes travel without going to the brain

208
Q

interposition

A

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

209
Q

intimacy vs isolation

A

Erikson’s stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families

210
Q

intrinsic

A

term that describes motivations that derive from one’s interest in the object of the motivation, rather than from rewards that one might gain

211
Q

introversion

A

a personality trait that signifies that one finds energy from internal sources rather than external ones

212
Q

James-Lange

A

theory of emotion in which physiological arousal precedes the emotion

213
Q

just world

A

phenomenon that describes the belief that what happens to people is what they deserve

214
Q

just noticeable difference

A

the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities, but otherwise identical

215
Q

kinethesis

A

sense of balance and of one’s physical position

216
Q

latent

A

Freud’s stage of psychosexual development occuring from about age 6 to puberty during which little happens in psychosexual terms

217
Q

latent content

A

the hidden or disguised meaning of dreams

218
Q

latent learning

A

a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, s, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though eh had encountered it in studying

219
Q

law of effect

A

Thorndike’s rule that behaviors which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated

220
Q

learned helplessness

A

lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has failed before to escape similar stimuli

221
Q

lens

A

a curved, transparent element of the vision system that provides focus

222
Q

lesion

A

any destruction or damage to brain tissue

223
Q

lithium

A

in psychopharmacology, this is used to control bipolar symptoms

224
Q

longitudinal

A

describes research that measures a trait in a particular group of subjects over a long period of time

225
Q

long term

A

refers to memory that is stored effectively in the brain and may be accessed over an extended period of time

226
Q

long term potentiation

A

a possible source of the formation of memories; improvement in a neuron’s ability to transmit caused by repeated stimulations

227
Q

lucid

A

describes a dream in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming and is able to influence the progress of the dream narrative

228
Q

eidetic

A

describes a type of visual memory that is retained for a long time; photographic

229
Q

mania

A

high state of arousal, often accompanied by poor judgment

230
Q

manifest

A

describes, in Freudian terms, the surface content of a dream

231
Q

marijuana

A

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive

232
Q

mean

A

numerical average of a set of numbers

233
Q

median

A

the middle one of a set of numbers

234
Q

medulla

A

part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure

235
Q

memory

A

functions associated with this include encoding, storage and retrieval

236
Q

mental age

A

developed by Binet; equal to one’s chronological age times the percentage score on an IQ test

237
Q

mere exposure effect

A

this phenomenon causes one to prefer a stimulus as a consequence of repeated exposures to that stimulus, particularly is there is no adverse result of the exposure

238
Q

metacognition

A

thinking about thinking

239
Q

MMPI

A

the initials of a long, detailed personality inventory

240
Q

mnemonic device

A

method of improving memory by associating new information with previously learned information

241
Q

mode

A

the most commonly occurring term in a batch of data

242
Q

modeling

A

the process of observing and imitating a behavior

243
Q

monocular

A

terms that means “one eyed”, used to indicate the sort of of enviromental cues to depth perception tha tonly require one eye, for example, interposition

244
Q

morpheme

A

in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning

245
Q

motion parallax

A

a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene

246
Q

motivation

A

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

247
Q

motor cortex

A

an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement

248
Q

motor neuron

A

this carries information from the brain to the muscles; also called “efferent”

249
Q

MRI

A

a technique that enables us to see static images of the brain’s structures; uses magnetism to achieve this effect

250
Q

dissociative identity disorder

A

also called multiple personality disorder

251
Q

myelin sheath

A

a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron’s axon that speeds transmission

252
Q

narcolepsy

A

a disorder characterized by sudden sleep attacks, often at inopportune times

253
Q

naturalistic

A

term refers to observations made of individual’s behavior in an everyday life setting

254
Q

nature vs nurture

A

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

255
Q

negative reinforcement

A

in operant conditioning, removing something unpleasant in order to elicit more of a particular behavior

256
Q

neural network

A

refers to interconnected neuron cells

257
Q

neuron

A

the fundamental building block of the nervous system

258
Q

neuroscience

A

perspective on psychology that emphasizes the study of the brain and its effects on behavior

259
Q

neurotransmitter

A

a chemical that is released by a neuron for the purpose of carrying information across the gaps (synapses) between neurons

260
Q

neutral

A

describes a stimulus in classical conditioning that would normally not elicit the response intended, such as the tone in Pavlov’s experiments before it was associated with the food

261
Q

night terrors

A

also called sleep terror disorder, these include the characteristic of waking abruptly in a state of panic, usually in children, less often in adults

262
Q

normal distribution

A

describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

263
Q

norm

A

an understood rule for social behavior

264
Q

NREM

A

refers to sleep during which there is no rapid eye movement

265
Q

obesity

A

condition of having excess body fat resulting in being greatly overweight

266
Q

object permanence

A

recognition that things continue to exist even though hidden from sight; infants generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of age

267
Q

observational learning

A

change in behavior due to watching other people behave

268
Q

obsessive-compulsive disorder

A

an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions

269
Q

occipital

A

this lobe contains the primary vision processing function

270
Q

Oedipus complex

A

in Freud’s theory, the conflict which results in a boy gaining a superego and beginning to emulate his father

271
Q

olfactory bulb

A

the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose

272
Q

omission training

A

a procedure in which reinforcement occurs when a specific behavior does not occur in a fixed period of time

273
Q

operant conditioning

A

a method of influencing behavior by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesired ones

274
Q

operational definition

A

a description of an experimental variable in such a way that the variable can be measured and the procedure can be replicated

275
Q

optic chiasm

A

the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye “crosses over” to the appropriate side of the brain for processing

276
Q

optic nerve

A

the axons of the ganglion cells form this

277
Q

oral stage

A

Freud’s first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth

278
Q

opponent process theory

A

term used in both vision theory and emotion theory

279
Q

outgroup

A

generally, any group that one does not belong to

280
Q

oval window

A

membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

281
Q

panic disorder

A

characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks

282
Q

paranoid

A

a type of schizophrenia characterized by prominent delusions that are persecutory or grandiose

283
Q

parasympathetic

A

the branch of the nervous system that automatically calms us down when the reason for arousal has passed

284
Q

parietal

A

lobe that contains the sensory cortex

285
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

this ailment, whose symptoms includes tremors and later difficulty walking, is caused by inability to produce dopamine

286
Q

perception

A

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

287
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

the subsystem of the nervous system that does not include the CNS

288
Q

permissive

A

describes a parenting style that is characterized by the parent making few demands on the child

289
Q

person-centered

A

therapy developed by Rogers featuring the patient’s self-discovery and actualization; also called client-centered

290
Q

personality

A

a consistent pattern of thinking, acting, feeling

291
Q

PET scan

A

method of brain imaging using positron emissions

292
Q

phallic

A

name for Freud’s stage which features the Oedipus stage

293
Q

phobia

A

fear

294
Q

phoneme

A

in language, smallest distinctive sound unit

295
Q

pituitary

A

gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system

296
Q

place theory

A

the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrae

297
Q

placebo

A

an inert substance given to the control group in an experiment

298
Q

placebo effect

A

phenomenon that some people get better even though they receive not medication but an inert substance which should have no medical effect

299
Q

plasticity

A

the ability of the brain to adapt to damage by reorganizing functions

300
Q

pons

A

part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here

301
Q

population

A

all of the individuals from which subjects for an experiment may be drawn

302
Q

positive psychology

A

ield of study which concentrates on good psychological traits such as contentment and joy; it also studies character traits such as wisdom, integrity and altruism

303
Q

PTSD

A

initials representing a disorder in which one relives painfully stressful events

304
Q

preconscious

A

in Freud’s theory, the level of consciousness in which thoughts and feelings are not conscious but are readily retrieveable to consciousness

305
Q

preconventional

A

Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking

306
Q

prejudice

A

a negative attitude formed toward an individual or group without sufficient experience with the person or group

307
Q

preoperational

A

Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, when egocentrism declines

308
Q

proactive interference

A

when prior learning disrupts the recall of new information

309
Q

projection

A

defense mechanism in which one disguises one’s won unacceptable impulses by attributing them to others

310
Q

projective

A

term describes a personality test in which ambiguous stimuli trigger revelation of inner feelings, thoughts

311
Q

psychiatrist

A

medical doctor who has specialized in treating psychological disorders

312
Q

psychoanalysis

A

Freud’s therapeutic technique

313
Q

psychodynamic

A

term describes the perspective on psychology in which inner feeling and unconscious tensions are emphasized

314
Q

psychopharmacology

A

the study of the effects of drugs on the mind and behavior

315
Q

punishment

A

can be either positive or negative, intended to reduce the occurrence of a behavior

316
Q

random

A

term that describes assignment in which all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or to the experimental group

317
Q

REBT

A

Albert Ellis’s form of therapy for psychological disorders

318
Q

rationalization

A

example: “The only reason I flunked the test is because our teacher is no good.”

319
Q

reaction formation

A

defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are transformed into their opposite

320
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

Bandura’s idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment

321
Q

refractory period

A

resting time; occurs in both neuron firing and in human sexual response

322
Q

regression

A

defense mechanism in which one retreats to an earlier stage of life

323
Q

rehearsal

A

conscious repetition of information in order to fix it in memory, such as practicing a list of terms to memorize

324
Q

reinforcer

A

in operant conditioning any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

325
Q

reliability

A

in testing, the characteristic of a test that produces consistent scores through retesting or alternate halves or other methods

326
Q

REM

A

describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases

327
Q

representative

A

this kind of sample accurately reproduces the characteristics of the population a researcher is studying

328
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

this cognitive short cut enables one to generalization based on how closely a stimulus matches a typical member of a class; given a picture of a man in a tweed jacket with a textbook, is this man a professor or a truck driver?

329
Q

repression

A

defense mechanism in which painful memories are excluded from consciousness

330
Q

reticular formation

A

a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness

331
Q

retina

A

the sensory reception system of the eye; includes rods and cones

332
Q

retrieval

A

the process of recovering information stored in memory

333
Q

retroactive interference

A

when new learning disrupts the recall of previously-learned information

334
Q

rods

A

responsible for black and white vision

335
Q

role-play

A

technique in therapy and training in which participants act out new behaviors or skills

336
Q

rooting

A

a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek

337
Q

Rorschach test

A

a projective test that uses inkblots as the ambiguous stimulus

338
Q

safety

A

the second rung of Maslow’s hierarchy; refers to need for freedom from danger

339
Q

scapegoat

A

this theory says that having suffered negative experience, an individual might blame an innocent person or group for the experience and subsequently mistreat the person or group

340
Q

scatterplot

A

name for a graph of data points in a two variable correlation

341
Q

schedules of reinforcement

A

these include fixed interval and variable ratio

342
Q

schema

A

a collection of basic knowledge about a category of information; serves as a means of organization and interpretation of that information

343
Q

schemata

A

plural form of schema

344
Q

schizophrenia

A

disorder characterized by hallucinations and delusions

345
Q

higher-order

A

term describes conditioning in which the CS for one experiment becomes the UCS in another experiment so that another neutral stimulus can be made to elicit the original UCR

346
Q

selective attention

A

this term describes the situation when you are focused on certain stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are excluded

347
Q

self-concept

A

one’s idea and evaluation of oneself; this contributes to one’s sense of identity

348
Q

self-efficacy

A

one’s ability to act effectively to bring about desired results; from Bandura

349
Q

self-actualization

A

the highest of Malow’s needs; “the full use of talent”

350
Q

self-esteem

A

the more positive one’s estimation of one’s qualities and characteristics, the higher this is

351
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy

A

a belief or expectation that helps to make itself true

352
Q

self-serving bias

A

the tendency to assign oneself credit for successes but to blame failures on external forces

353
Q

semantics

A

in language, study of meanings of words

354
Q

sensorimotor

A

describes Piaget’s stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment

355
Q

sensory adaptation

A

reduced responsiveness caused by prolonged stimulation

356
Q

sensory cortex

A

the parts of the brain that receive information from the sensory receptors

357
Q

sensory neurons

A

nervous system cells that receive information from the environment

358
Q

afferent

A

in neurons, another name for sensory

359
Q

serial position effect

A

this tells us that the best recall of a list of items will be of those at the beginning of the list

360
Q

serotonin

A

a neurotransmitter; associated with improved mood and other positive emotions

361
Q

SSRI

A

class of drugs used to relieve anxiety by limiting reuptake of a neurotransmitter

362
Q

set point

A

the point at which one’s body tries maintain weight

363
Q

sexual response

A

its four stages are excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution

364
Q

shaping

A

an operant conditioning technique in which reinforces guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

365
Q

short-term

A

type of memory that holds a few items briefly before they are lost

366
Q

signal detection

A

this theory predicts how and in what circumstances we can detect a stimulus; assumes there is no single threshold

367
Q

sleep apnea

A

a disorder characterized by cessation of breathing during sleep

368
Q

sleep spindles

A

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

369
Q

socio-cultural

A

a perspective on psychology that emphasizes effects on behavior and thinking of one’s culture and the people around one

370
Q

social exchange

A

a theory that suggests that our behavior is based on maximizing benefits and minimizing costs

371
Q

social facilitation

A

a phenomenon in which we perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others

372
Q

social learning

A

a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others

373
Q

somatic

A

a division of the nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movements

374
Q

somatoform disorder

A

any of a group of psychological disturbances characterized by physical symptoms for which there is not a medical cause

375
Q

split brain

A

a condition in which the two brain hemispheres are isolated by cutting the corpus callosum

376
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

in classical conditioning the re-occurence of conditioning after it had appeared to be extinct

377
Q

standard deviation

A

a computation of how much scores vary around a mean

378
Q

stereotype

A

a set of generalizations about a group

379
Q

structuralism

A

school of psychology developed by Wilhelm Wundt

380
Q

sublimation

A

a defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed into socially admirable outlets, such as art

381
Q

superego

A

the part of the personality in Freud’s theory that is responsible for making moral choices

382
Q

sympathetic

A

part of the nervous system that controls the “flight or fight” response

383
Q

synaptic gap

A

space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron

384
Q

syntax

A

in language the set of rules that describe how words are arranged to make sentences

385
Q

temperament

A

personality component that ranges from very calm to very exitable

386
Q

temporal

A

the lobe that controls audition

387
Q

thalamus

A

the sensory switchboard

388
Q

TAT

A

a projective test in which subjects look at and tell a story about ambiguous pictures

389
Q

theory

A

this organizes data and is used to make predictions

390
Q

threshold

A

in a neuron, reaching this causes the neuron to fire

391
Q

token economy

A

a technique in operant conditioning by which desired behaviors receive forms of currency that can be exchanged for rewards

392
Q

twin studies

A

a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior

393
Q

unconditioned response

A

in conditioning the behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

394
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

in conditioning it elicits the UCR

AP Psychology (10 decks)

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