Reasoning

Question 1

Inductive reasoning

Answer 1

• to create a general conclusion out of a specific instance.
• the conclusion is no logical premise that follows out of the conclusion but a generalized statement that is not necessarily true.
• -> analogical reasoning
• -> hypothesis testing - leading to general conclusions.

Question 2

Deductive reasoning

Answer 2

• conclusion follows necessarily from the assumption.
• relation to problem solving. Deductive reasoning has a definitive goal. (a math calculation)
• -> conclusions are necessarily valid
• conditional reasoning
• Syllogistic reasoning

Question 3

Karl Popper

Answer 3

• falsification is the only reasonable form of scientific reasoning.

No confirmation can ever be reached through hypothesis testing.

Question 4

Wasons 2-4-6 task

Answer 4

• Experiment of Wason:
  The participants were told to name three numbers in search of a rule. The experimenter would tell them if there attempts was correct or false.

A lot of participants struggled with the confirmation bias. They made up a rule and tried to confirm this rule.

confirming behavior costed the pp a lot of time.

Question 5

Limitation to Wasons task

Answer 5

• no real life scenario
• -> immediate feedback but no answer why their hypothesis was correct or incorrect.
• less confirmation bias if the hypothesis is the one tested of someone else.

Question 6

Popper

Answer 6

focus on falsification instead of confirmation.

Full confirmation is impossible

Question 7

Strategies for deductive reasoning

Answer 7

• counterexample strategy:
  thinking of a counterexample of the own theory. If nothing comes to mind the theory can be confirmed.
• statistical strategy:
  Estimating the probability that the hypothesis is true given the knowledge of a person.

Question 8

Wason selection task with turning around cards

Answer 8

• people have the task to only turn around the tasks that need to be turned in order to detect the true rule.

Matching rule:
Pp only turn around cards that would prove the cards that are already open. ( their theory) +

Denotic rule. ( disproving rule)

Turn around cards that would disprove your rule.

Question 9

Belief bias

Answer 9

the tendency to belief incorrect but believable information rather than unbelievable but correct conclusions.

Question 10

Base rate effect

Answer 10

• the knowledge about the likelihood of the information being true effect the way a person reasons about the

Question 11

Stupple and Ball 2008

Answer 11

• found that pp take more time to process unbelievable premises than believable ones.

People identify the premises with their own beliefs. This is why an unbelievable premise causes more cognitive conflict.

Question 12

Mental model theory

Answer 12

• John Laireds theory states that people do not make use of deductive reasoning.
  Instead they use mental models that are made up of already confirmed premises and prior knowledge.
  If the premises and the conclusion are inconsistent the conclusion is invalid.

Alternative models may be formed.

or Counterexample models which function to falsify the model.

Question 13

The principle of truth

Answer 13

• through the generation of mental models humans seek confirmation
• humans fail to think of what is false
• therefore the models are often not accurate and lead to a false outcome.

Question 14

System 1 and System 2

Answer 14

System 1 :
- this system does process unconscious fast processing, parallel processing.

heuristics

System two :
conscious
slow and effortful processing , this system is involved in analytical reasoning.

• rule based serial processing

–> problem solving, limited capacity.

Question 15

Three principles of human reasoning

Answer 15

Singularity principle:
only one model can be considered at a time.

Relevance principle:
the most relevant model, based on the persons knowledge is considered

Satisficing principle :
decision making strategy that aims towards a satisfying or adequate result. Not necessarily to a fully correct result.

Question 16

What are the three different theories towards System 1 and System 2 processing

Answer 16

• serial: Deliberate processing does begin after intuitive reasoning.
• parallel: Both intuitive and deliberate processes occur at the same time.
• logical intuition model:
  intuitive heuristics and logical heuristics occur parallely.
• deliberate processing occurs after only if needed.

Question 17

Advantages and disadvantages of the different models

Answer 17

• serial model:
  intuitive logical decisions are not covered.
• parallel model :
  this model does contain a way too high energy waste. The capacities of the central executive are very limited. The parallel working does use the limited resources too much.
• logical intuitionist model:
  does not differentiate among heuristics and intuitive logic enough

Question 18

logical intuitionist model De Neys ??

Answer 18

• due to the logical intuitionist model, human cognition is structured in first logical and heuristic processes working in parallel.

What is a logical process ? –> logical processes can be activated automatically.

If the logical and heuristic processes are in conflict the deliberate processing is activated.

Analytical systems are more likely to be used when the instructions empathise that logical reasoning is needed in this exercise.

Question 19

What is the use of De Neys monitoring system ?

Answer 19

The monitoring system is part of the logical intuitionist model. The monitoring system does monitor the intuitive processes and bodily reactions towards them in order to activate the deliberate cognitive processes when needed.

Bodily reactions that:

• long reconsideration lead the participants to activate analytical thinking
• feelings of rightness lead the participant to accept the intuitive answer.

Question 20

Findings that support ehe logical intuitionist model

Answer 20

• does account for individual differences in reasoning
• does entail the three proven principles of human reasoning: satisficing, relevance and singularity
• findings prove the existence of heuristic and analytic processes and that the latter is more effortful

Question 21

Limitations of the logical intuitionist model

Answer 21

• the model does not explain how heuristic and analytical processes interact.
• there is not prove to the theory that heuristic processes are followed by analytical processes.

Question 22

Brain areas activated in deductive reasoning

Answer 22

Generally it can be said that the left frontal and parietal cortex areas are the ones that are the most active during deductive reasoning.

Relational reasoning: E.G. X is next to Y and Y is next to 1 therefore
Parietal cortex shows high activtion due to the representational and spatial processing needed.

categorical reasoning: E.G. all x are Y. and all Y are 1
Rule based reasoning is needed.
Left inferior frontal gyrus

propositional reasoning: E.G. If X than Y
left precentral gyrus. This region is associated with attentional processes and motor processes.

Question 23

individual differences in deductive reasoning

Answer 23

• more intelligent people do make more use of analytical reasoning
• the right inferior frontal cortex is involved in inhibiting incorrect intuitions.
• -> individuals with more activity in this area show less belief bias

The more highly complex the task is the more belief bias is used by the persons

Question 24

Dual system theories

Answer 24

Dual system theory:
- people use deductive reasoning first which may than be enriched by their knowledge and context.

heuristic analytic theory of reasoning:

• People do first use heuristics and their knowledge and context
• if a next step is needed they make use of analytic reasoning.

Question 25

Fangmaier et al –> steps in relational reasoning

Answer 25

• premise processing stage -> temporo occipital activation
• premise integration stage –> anterior prefrontal cortex activation.
• premise validation:
  parietal cortex and prefrontal cortex, dorsal cingulate cortes and ,parietal cortex because of the representation, and prefrontal cortex due to the cognitively demanding task of validating the conclusion.

Question 26

statistical approach

Answer 26

when a person has a more limited time to reason- he or she accepts what is more statistically probable.

Question 27

natural frequency hypothesis Gigerenzer & Hoffrage

Answer 27

• a given task is more easy to solve when it is presented in a natural frequency ( 123) than in percentages.

Question 28

principle of truth

Answer 28

people engage mostly in the true facts when reasoning - they dont consider the doutable parts

Question 29

Differences among informal reasoning and deductive reasoning

Answer 29

• informal reasoning is the kind or reasoning which happens in every day life.

Informal reasoning is dependent of the context ( we believe a scientist more than a child) , not based on logic, possibly/ probably true, based on own experience and heuristics.

Whereas deductive reasoning is logical, context independent, certainly true, used in science, past knowledge has no relevance