research and methods - pos, int, third way

Question 1

Positivism
- general (7)
- key terms (22)
- preferred research methods (3)
- disliked research methods (2)
- book’s examples (2)
- positivist examples (5)
- strengths/weaknesses (5 + 5)

Answer 1

General:
1. influenced by science, empiricism, natural science research methods
2. people as objects, influenced wholly by their environment
3. social laws influence humans; humans are a product of the organisation of society
4. ! individualism, free will, autonomy less influential than society’s ability to shape human behaviour and thought

5. *positivists studying societal structure: ‘structuralists’
6. *functionalism, marxism, feminism see social structure as dominant force
7. *Durkheim and Marx primary positivists

Key terms:
1. objective, empirical, fact, statistical, numerical, quantitative, standardised, measure, count, observe, ‘social laws/forces’, macro, ‘puppets of society’, trends, patterns, systematic, logical, generalisation, ‘value-free’, ‘cause-and-effect’, ‘social engineering’

Preferred:
1. aims of: objectivity, reliability, value, can be repeated, can be generalised/extrapolated, accurate over authentic, quantitative, systematic and standardised methods.

2. primarily research, but secondary also.
3. social surveys, questionnaires, polls, structured interviews, documents, statistics

Disliked:
1. qualitative research:** informal, open to subjectivity, relativity, bias**
2. ethnography, verstehen, unstructured processes, a lack of scientific research

Book’s examples:
1. Durkheim (1897): positivist approach of suicide stats, hypothesised suicide was a social fact (‘egoistic suicide’) caused by individualism and failure to integrate individuals into society/community.
2. BSA (‘British Sociological Association’): ethical guidelines on research, work well for positivists.

Pos examples:
1. Milgram Experiment (1961) - Used laboratory experiments to study obedience to authority.
- Research Technique: Controlled laboratory experiments

2. Hawthorne (1924-1932) - Investigated the effects of ** workplace conditions on productivity.**
   - Research Technique: Controlled experiments and observation, secondary statistical data
3. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961) - Examined the role of observational learning in aggressive behaviour.
   - Research Technique: Controlled laboratory experiment.
4. Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert Experiment (1920) - Studied classical conditioning by inducing fear in a young child.
   - Research Technique: Controlled laboratory experiment.

strengths/weaknesses:
Strengths:
1. Emphasises objectivity and the use of scientific methods.
2. Provides a structured and systematic approach to research.
3. Focuses on empirical evidence and observable phenomena.
4. Allows for replication and verification of findings.
5. Provides a foundation for generalisation and prediction.

Weaknesses:
1. May oversimplify complex social phenomena.
2. **Ignores subjective experiences and meanings.
3. Assumes a ** value-free approach, which may not be possible.
4. May prioritise quantitative data and overlook qualitative insights.
5. Can be limited in addressing context-specific or culturally situated phenomena.

Question 2

Interpretivism
- general (5)
- key terms (21)
- preferred research methods (4)
- disliked research methods (1)
- book’s examples (1)
- positivist examples (5)
- strengths/weaknesses (5 + 5)

Answer 2

General:
1. by Max Weber (developed by Mead), as ‘anti-positivist’/interpretivism, coined ‘Verstehen’/empathy

2. humans conscious, thinking, autonomous, free-willed, self-actualising and individual thinkers. Not wholly influenced by societal structures or social laws.
3. what makes an interaction ‘social’ is the process of interpreting and reinterpreting responses and identity
4. Mead: ‘people interpret the actions of others, and react according to that interpretation..when interpretations are not shared, social breakdown can occur.’; causes of social interaction are from ‘the definition of the situation’ over external laws.
5. Interpretivists view validity and accurate, authentic representation over objectivity and reliability. Argue ‘researcher imposition’ for positivists: bias from positivist researcher in dictating presentation of data.

Key terms:
- ‘architects of society’, subjective, relative, context-based, ‘verstehen’, ethnography, ‘get inside their heads’, ‘in their shoes’, ‘social world’, ‘socially constructed’, society as the ‘net sum of all social interactions’, ‘rapport’, qualitative, subjects ‘speak for themselves’, unsystematic, unstructured, naturalistic, ‘reflexivity’ process, ‘methodological’, self-evaluation

Preferred:
1. aims of: accuracy through authenticity, getting ‘inside’ the ‘heads’ of the subjects, establishing verstehen and rapport
2. primary research mostly, and through qualitative means
3. unstructured interviews, naturalistic research, ethnography and verstehen processes, reflexivity to mitigate possible bias and issues.
4. secondary also, but pov-based: diaries, journals, letters, autobiographies

Disliked:
1. overly quantitative; emphasis on objectivity, distance, generalisations and **seeing subjects as objects ** as opposed to real living, conscious beings with unique experiences.

Book’s examples:
- Atkinson (1978), interpretivist: opposed Durkheim’s suicide conclusion – Durkheim failed to recognise that suicide stats are socially constructed and influenced by coroners, family members and others.

Pos examples:
1. Becker (1963): explored the social construction of deviance in society.
- Research Technique: Qualitative interviews and participant observation.

2. Geertz (1973) - investigated the role of symbols and meaning in cultural practices.
   - Research Technique: Ethnographic observation and interviews.
3. Denzin and Lincoln’s handbook (1994) - Provided an overview of various qualitative research methods and approaches.
   - Research Technique: Various qualitative methods, including interviews, focus groups, and document analysis.
4. Glaser and Strauss (1967) - Developed the grounded theory approach for generating theory from qualitative data.
   - Research Technique: Grounded theory methodology, including interviews and constant comparative analysis.
5. Goffman (1959) - Explored the dramaturgical perspective of social interaction and impression management.
   - Research Technique: Ethnographic observation and participant observation.

strengths/weaknesses:
Strengths:
1. Recognizes the importance of subjective experiences and meanings.
2. Provides in-depth understanding and rich descriptions of social phenomena.
3. Allows for flexibility in research methods and approaches.
4. Encourages reflexivity and self-awareness of the researcher’s role.
5. Can capture social context and cultural nuances.

Weaknesses:
1. Findings may be highly contextual and not easily generalised.
2. Subjectivity of interpretation can introduce bias.
3. Lack of standardisation can affect reliability.
4. May be time-consuming and resource-intensive.
5. Critics argue that it** lacks scientific rigour and replicability.**

Question 3

‘A Third Way’

Answer 3

• uses a combination of positivist and interpretivist elements; is a common process for most modern sociologists