Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Research > Research and Stats Comp > Flashcards

Research and Stats Comp Flashcards

1
Q

Dependent t-test

A

I/R DV w Norm

DV Measured Twice (within)

One group or matched group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Probability Sampling

A

Aka random samplingEach person in the population has equal chance of being choosen for the sample

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Null hypothesis

A

specifies there is no differences between groups

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA

A

Ordinal DV or Non-Normality

Independent Samples

> 2 Groups

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Quota Sample

A

Accidental Sample where you are trying to meet certain groups proprotionate to the pop Ex: interviewing x number of men and women

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Construct Validity Cues of the experimental situation that influence the resultsaspects of the instructions, procedures, etc. that are part of the study but not the “active ingredient”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Effect size (ES)

A

magnitude of the difference between two (or more) conditions or groupsM1 - M2/SDThe smaller the variablity (the more we minimize error) the larger the effect size because SD is the denominator

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Accidental (Available) Samples

A

take cases that are available until reach a specifed N (ex: first 100 people on the street)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Participant Heterogeneity

A

Data-Evaluation Validitywhen characteristics related to how particpants respond to the treatment are too varied which varies the results Can be addressed with factorial design or by using a more homogenous sample

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Matching

A

grouping participants on a variable (or variables). Then participants at each level of the variable are assigned to each group, so that the groups end up equivalent.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Moderated mediation

A

occurs when strength (or direction) of the relation of the mediator to outcome depends on the level of some other variablemediator that doesn’t work for everyone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Yoked Control Group

A

used to make the groups equal on some variable, like number of sessions, so that variable will not be a confounding variable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

A

Type of true experiment design R = random assignment A = Assessment or Observation X = InterventionGroup 1: R A1 X A2Group 2: R A1 A2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

No-Treatment Control Group

A

receives all of the assessments that the treatment group does but no intervention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Incremental Validity

A

Whether a new measure or measure of a new construct adds to an existing measure or set of measures with regard to some outcome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Research Design

A

refers to the arrangement or ways to arrange conditions to evaluate the hypotheses

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Factor Analysis

A

Find Dimensions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Single Operations and Narrow Stimulus Sampling

A

Construct Validity Sometimes a single set of stimuli, investigator or other facet of the study that the investigator considers irrelevant may contribute to the impact of the experimental manipulation Also a type of external validity but in construct it’s not about generalizability but rather not being able to separate “active ingredient” from other variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Special Treatment or Reactions of Control

A

Internal Validity Threatcontrol group gets special attention which can be an alternative explanation of the resultsEx: control group is given something so they won’t feel snubbedOther examples:-Participants try harder because they know they’re in the treatment group-Control group tries harder to match Part. -Control group performs worse because they are let down that they are in control group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Special Treatment or Reactions of Control

A

Internal Validity Threatcontrol group gets special attention which can be an alternative explanation of the resultsEx: control group is given something so they won’t feel snubbedOther examples:-Participants try harder because they know they’re in the treatment group-Control group tries harder to match Part. -Control group performs worse because they are let down that they are in control group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Weaknesses of Cohort Designs

A
  1. Take a long time.2. Expensive.3. Attrition can bias the sample.4. Possibility of cohort effects.5. If the outcome of interest is infrequent, sample size may end up being so small that statistical power is low.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Reactive measures

A

If awareness of assessment leads persons to respond differently from ow they would usually respond

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Misreading or Misinterpreting the Data

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityWrong stastical test was used to analyze the data or author went beyond what the results were showing in their interpretation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Design

A

Type of Multiple-Treatment Designs Order 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Group (orSequence) 1 A B C D 2 B A D C 3 C D A B 4 D C B AThis design is called a Latin Square

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Diffusion or Imitation of Treatment

A

some or all of the participants in the control group may inadvertently receive some or all of the treatment (e.g. kids in two classes talk about the treatment during recess)Also can happen if some people in the intervention group do no receive the intervention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Treatment as Usual (TAU)

A

routine or standard treatment that is usually provided at a clinic Advantages:1. People seeking treatment get it, so avoid an ethical issue.2. Likely to be less attrition than in a group not receiving treatment.3. Generally controls for common factors.4. More acceptable to therapists.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Retrospective Case-Control Design

A

compares groups that differ on the particular characteristic being studied on other variables that occurred in the past

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

No-Contact Control Group

A

no contact with the research project and do not know they are in a treatment Assessment appear to them as a routine part of some other activity difficult because violates informed consent pretty rare

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Participant Heterogeneity

A

Data-Evaluation Validitywhen characteristics related to how particpants respond to the treatment are too varied which varies the results Can be addressed with factorial design or by using a more homogenous sample

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Weaknesses of Case-Control Design

A

Weaknesses of case-control designs:1. When two variables are related, it may be unclear which one came first.2. Causation cannot be demonstrated. 3. There may be sampling bias in how participants are selected. For example, when studying women who have been abused by their spouses, if one found their participants at domestic violence shelters, they would be leaving out the majority of women victims of domestic violence who do not go to shelters. Clearly, how participants are found is very important in this kind of study.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Instrumentation

A

Internal Validity ThreatChanges in how the DV is measured over timeCan occur when any of the following is not constant:measuring instrumentsobservers, raters, or interviewers remarks or directions form the experimenter test conditionsMost common occurrence is where raters change the criteria they are using over time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Posttest-Only Design

A

Type of quasiGroup 1: nonR X A1Group 2: nonR A2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Construct Validity

A

what specific aspects of an intervention are responsible for observed change or an observed effect Distinguish from contruct validity of a testconsidered after threats to internal validity have been ruled out

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Oversample

A

take more participants of one group to be able to compare (ex: oversampling native americans to be able to compare them to other groups)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Construct Validity Cues of the experimental situation that influence the resultsaspects of the instructions, procedures, etc. that are part of the study but not the “active ingredient”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Alternative-Form Reliability

A

Correlation between forms of the same measure when the items of the two forms are considered to represent the same population of items

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Response set

A

Participants also may adopt a response set when filling out a measure. A response set is “a systematic way of answering questions or responding to the measure that is separate from the construct of interest.” Four possible response sets are:1. Acquiescence—tendency to say “Yes” or “True” when responding to items.2. Naysaying—tendency to disagree or deny characteristics.3. Socially Desirable Responding—tendency to answer so as to make oneself look good. 4. End Aversion Bias—tendency to not give extreme responses (e.g. not use the ends of a 1-7 scale).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Reactivity of Assessment

A

External Validity ThreatParticipants’ awareness that they are being assessed can alter their responsesFocuses on the measures used and other measurement procedures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Reactivity of Experimental Arrangements

A

External Validity ThreatIssue of how partcipants’ knowledge that they are being studied (or in a special program or that a relationship is being examined between specific variables) changes their behavior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Misreading or Misinterpreting the Data

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityWrong stastical test was used to analyze the data or author went beyond what the results were showing in their interpretation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Types of sampling

A

Probability SamplingAccidental SamplesSystematic SamplingStratified SamplingQuota SamplesPurposive SamplesCluster SamplingMneumonic: PASS QPC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Mechanism

A

the steps or processes through which the intervention (or some IV) actually unfolds and produces the change

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Posttest-Only Design

A

Type of quasiGroup 1: nonR X A1Group 2: nonR A2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Mann Whitney U Test

A

Ordinal DV or Non-Normality

Independent Samples (between)

2 groups

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Narrow Stimulus Sampling

A

External Validity ThreatThe extent to which the results might be restricted to a restricted range of sampling materials (stimuli) or other features the experimenters used in the experimentStimulus characteristics include the experimenters, setting, interviewers or other factorsMost commonly occurs when there is one experimenter, one therapist, one setting, one taped story, etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Test Bias

A

A test is biased when it does not predict as accurately for one group as it does for another. Bias occurs when the data for two groups have different slopes or different intercepts. When two groups get different mean scores on a test, that alone does not mean that the test is biased.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Multiple Comparisons and Error Rates

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityWhen multiple statistical tests are completed the likelihood of chance finding is increasedi.e. .05 alpha is only for one test. alpha goes above .05 when you do multiple tests a.k.a “experiment-wise error rate”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Concurrent validity

A

correlation of a measure with performance on another measure or criterion at the same point in time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Variablity in the Procedures

A

Data-Evaluation ValiditySame as particpant heterogeneity but has to do with procedures, instructions, etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Type II error

A

Not reject null hypothesis when it is false

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Case-control design

A

Type of observational designinvestigate a variable (characteristic) by comparing those who have the characteristic with those who do not have the characteristic. These groups are compared on other variables in the present or in the past.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Content Validity

A

content of the items reflects the construct or domain of interest. The relation of the items to the concept underlying the measure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Correlate

A

two variables are related but one variable does not precede the other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Types of Validity (4)

A

InternalExternal ConstructData-Evaluation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Reactivity of Experimental Arrangements

A

External Validity ThreatIssue of how partcipants’ knowledge that they are being studied (or in a special program or that a relationship is being examined between specific variables) changes their behavior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

<p>criterion validity</p>

A

<p>correlation of a measure with some other criterion (can encompass concurrent or predictive validity)</p>

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Wait-List Control Group

A

Control group receives treatment after the final assessment has been made time between pre and post assessments must be the same for the treatment group and for the wait-list control group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Chi Square Test of Independence or Two-Way Chi Square

A

Non-Directional

Correlational

Nominal IV and Nominal DV

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Translational research

A

applies finding from basic research (e.g. laboratory research) to people in real life (applied research)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Types of sampling

A

Probability SamplingAccidental SamplesSystematic SamplingStratified SamplingQuota SamplesPurposive SamplesCluster SamplingMneumonic: PASS QPC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Types of reliability

A

Test-RetestAlternative-FormInternal Consistency Interrater

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Threats to Internal Validity

A

Statistical RegressionMaturationInstrumentation Testing HistorySelection BiasesAttrition Diffusion or Imitation TreatmentSpecial Treatment or Reactions of Controls Mneumonic: SMITHS ADS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Solomon Four-Group Design

A

Type of true experimental designGroup 1: R A1 X A2 Design 1Group 2: R A3 A4 Group 3: R X A5 Group 4: R A6 Design 2Pros:1. Controls for the usual threats to internal validity.2. Can measure the effect of pre-testing (A4 vs. A6) because they differ only in that Group 2 got the pretest and Group 4 did not.3. Can measure the interaction effect of pre-testing and the intervention (A2 vs. A5).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Selection Biases

A

Internal Validity Threatdifferences between groups before the intervention or experimental manipulation because of selection or assignment of groupsOne form is using different selection methods for two groupsOften a problem when using groups that already exist (i.e. classes or hospital wards)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Changing-Criterion Designs

A

Single-Case Experimental Research DesignThe effect of the intervention is demonstrated by showing that behavior changes gradually over the course of the intervention phase. For example, reinforcing a child for practicing a musical instrument. A criterion (amount of time) is initially specified for the child. As (s)he improves (i.e. practices more), the criterion is increased—i.e. more time must be spent to get the reward. The effects of the intervention are shown when the child practices more after each time the criterion is changed.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Independent t-test

A

Don’t know sigma

I/R DV w Norm

DV Measured Once

1 Iv w/ 2 levels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Factorial Designs

A
  1. Factorial designs allow investigation of two or more independent variables at the same time, i.e. in one study. Each variable has two or more levels (or conditions).Four box table
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Effectiveness research

A

evaluates treatments in clinical settings with “real” patients and under conditions more routinely seen in clinical practice

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

A

Type of true experiment design R = random assignment A = Assessment or Observation X = InterventionGroup 1: R A1 X A2Group 2: R A1 A2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Types of validity

A

ConstructContentConcurrentCriterionConvergentPredictive IncrementalFaceDiscriminant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Weaknesses of Case-Control Design

A

Weaknesses of case-control designs:1. When two variables are related, it may be unclear which one came first.2. Causation cannot be demonstrated. 3. There may be sampling bias in how participants are selected. For example, when studying women who have been abused by their spouses, if one found their participants at domestic violence shelters, they would be leaving out the majority of women victims of domestic violence who do not go to shelters. Clearly, how participants are found is very important in this kind of study.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Systematic Sampling

A

take every Kth person from your list problem can occur if there is a cyclical pattern in the list that coincides with the sampling interval

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Multigroup Cohort Design

A

follows two or more groups over time “to examine outcomes of interest.” “One group is identified because they have an experience, condition, or characteristic of interest; the other group is identified who does not

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Diffusion or Imitation of Treatment

A

some or all of the participants in the control group may inadvertently receive some or all of the treatment (e.g. kids in two classes talk about the treatment during recess)Also can happen if some people in the intervention group do no receive the intervention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

Data-Evaluation Validity

A

Facets of the evaluation that influence the conclusions we reach about the experimental condition and its effects

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

Retrospective Case-Control Design

A

compares groups that differ on the particular characteristic being studied on other variables that occurred in the past

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

Types of Validity (4)

A

InternalExternal ConstructData-Evaluation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Cluster Sampling

A

first sample groupings or clusters, then sample individuals from theseCan be random used because it is difficult and expensive to get random or stratified random samplesLarge-scale surveys often use this methodAka multistage sampling because of the different stages involved

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Type I error

A

Reject null hypothesis when it is true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Instrumentation

A

Internal Validity ThreatChanges in how the DV is measured over timeCan occur when any of the following is not constant:measuring instrumentsobservers, raters, or interviewers remarks or directions form the experimenter test conditionsMost common occurrence is where raters change the criteria they are using over time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

Theory

A

conceptualization of the phenomenon of interest provides a tentative explanation of how variables are related To be a scientific theory it must generate testable hypotheses organizes existing research in a way that guides further studies Can explain the basis for change and give us an idea of which moderators to investigate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

Accidental (Available) Samples

A

take cases that are available until reach a specifed N (ex: first 100 people on the street)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

Sample Characteristics

A

External Validity ThreatThe extent to which the results can be extended to subjects or clients whose characteristics may differ from those included in the investigation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

Experimenter Expectancies

A

Construct Validity Unintentional effects the experimenter may have that influence the subject’s responses in the experiment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

Longitudinal studies

A

make comparisons over an extended period of time often involving several years a study with pre, post and follow up is longitudinal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

Attention and Contact Accorded the Client

A

Construct Validity The extent to which increased attention or contact to the client that is associated with the intervention could plausibly explain the effects attributed to the intervention Placebo group can help mediate this

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

Multiple-Treatment Interference

A

External Validity ThreatDo not know whether a particular treatment would have been effective by itself if it is administered along with another treatment or after another treatmentAlso, when one task is given and then preceded by other tasks Can refer to therapy or to different conditions in an experiment

88
Q

Longitudinal studies

A

make comparisons over an extended period of time often involving several years a study with pre, post and follow up is longitudinal

89
Q

Reactivity of Assessment

A

External Validity ThreatParticipants’ awareness that they are being assessed can alter their responsesFocuses on the measures used and other measurement procedures

90
Q

Cohort Designs

A

Type of observational design here the researcher follows and studies a group or groups of people over time. So, this is a prospective, longitudinal design. A cohort “is a group of people who share a particular characteristic such as being born” in a particular year.

91
Q

Attention and Contact Accorded the Client

A

Construct Validity The extent to which increased attention or contact to the client that is associated with the intervention could plausibly explain the effects attributed to the intervention Placebo group can help mediate this

92
Q

Criteria for Inferring a Causal Relationship between Variables

A
  1. A strong relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.2. Consistency or replication, although some inconsistency can occur when there is a moderator variable.3. The cause comes before the effect.4. A “does-response relation”: more of the IV is associated with greater change in the DV.5. A reasonable process that explains how the IV leads to the DV.6. Experiment: when the IV is altered, a change in the DV occurs.7. Existence of similar findings in other areas.
93
Q

True Experiment

A

allow the most control over the IVrandomly assign each person to a condition

94
Q

Cohort Designs

A

Type of observational design here the researcher follows and studies a group or groups of people over time. So, this is a prospective, longitudinal design. A cohort “is a group of people who share a particular characteristic such as being born” in a particular year.

95
Q

Quasi-experiment

A

when researcher cannot control who is in each groupoften occurs when doing research in schools or hospitals (because classes or wards already exist)Sometimes researcher is able to randomly assign P in some groups but not all groups

96
Q

Sample Characteristics

A

External Validity ThreatThe extent to which the results can be extended to subjects or clients whose characteristics may differ from those included in the investigation

97
Q

Statistical Regression

A

Internal Validity Threatextreme scores tend to change towards the mean over timeno treatment control group helps mediateprotect against:randomly assign participants to groupsuse measures with high reliability and validity -test participants twice before the intervention and select those who are high on both testings (rarely done)

98
Q

Accelerated, Multi-Cohort Longitudinal Design

A

include “cohorts who vary in age when they enter the study.” “The design is ‘accelerated’ because a longer period of development is covered by selecting cohorts at different periods and following them.” For example, one could study the age range 5-14 years by selecting children at the ages of 5, 8, and 11, and following them for 4 years. It would take much longer to study a cohort of 5-year-olds until they were 14. Advantage of this design is that it doesn’t take as long and can explore cohort effects

99
Q

Experimenter Expectancies

A

Construct Validity Unintentional effects the experimenter may have that influence the subject’s responses in the experiment

100
Q

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

A

Type of True Experimental DesignR = random assignment A = Assessment or Observation X = Intervention Group 1: R X A1 Group 2: R A1

101
Q

Single-Case Experimental Research Design Limitations

A

The biggest concern raised about single-case designs is that results cannot be generalized, i.e., external validity threat. However, when comparing single-case designs with between-group experimental research, it is important to consider:1. Interventions that were developed through single-case research “have wide generality…across many human populations (e.g., from infant to the elderly).”2. In between-group research, we usually do not know how many people in the sample actually improved. Usually findings are reported for each group only.3. Between-group research rarely uses random sampling from the population of interest. Generality requires assurances that the sample represents the population.The key to generality is replication, which occurs in single-case research when there is more than one participant.

102
Q

Quasi-experiment

A

when researcher cannot control who is in each groupoften occurs when doing research in schools or hospitals (because classes or wards already exist)Sometimes researcher is able to randomly assign P in some groups but not all groups

103
Q

Matching

A

grouping participants on a variable (or variables). Then participants at each level of the variable are assigned to each group, so that the groups end up equivalent.

104
Q

Statistical Regression

A

Internal Validity Threatextreme scores tend to change towards the mean over timeno treatment control group helps mediateprotect against:randomly assign participants to groupsuse measures with high reliability and validity -test participants twice before the intervention and select those who are high on both testings (rarely done)

105
Q

Threats to External Validity

A

Multiple-Treatment Interference Sample CharacteristicsNarrow Stimulus SamplingReactivity of Experimental Arrangements Reactivity of AssessmentTest Sensitization Novetly EffectsGenerality across Measues, Setting and TimeMneumonic: M. SNRRTNG

106
Q

Testing

A

Internal Validity ThreatEffects of repeated assessment “practice effect”group that receives pre and post without intervention can help rule this out

107
Q

Effect size (ES)

A

magnitude of the difference between two (or more) conditions or groupsM1 - M2/SDThe smaller the variablity (the more we minimize error) the larger the effect size because SD is the denominator

108
Q

Discriminant Analysis

A

Prediction of Group Membership

Multiple IVS (I/R and Nominal)

One DV (Nominal)

109
Q

Case-control design

A

Type of observational designinvestigate a variable (characteristic) by comparing those who have the characteristic with those who do not have the characteristic. These groups are compared on other variables in the present or in the past.

110
Q

Accelerated, Multi-Cohort Longitudinal Design

A

include “cohorts who vary in age when they enter the study.” “The design is ‘accelerated’ because a longer period of development is covered by selecting cohorts at different periods and following them.” For example, one could study the age range 5-14 years by selecting children at the ages of 5, 8, and 11, and following them for 4 years. It would take much longer to study a cohort of 5-year-olds until they were 14. Advantage of this design is that it doesn’t take as long and can explore cohort effects

111
Q

Single-Group Cohort Design

A

identifies subjects who meet a particular criterion (e.g. …individuals released from prison…) and follows them over time.” A number of variables are assessed at the beginning of the study and often at other times, i.e. more than once, during the study. At the end of the study, the researcher examines which of the variables assessed predict(s) the outcome

112
Q

Purposive Samples

A

Pick cases that are judged to be typical of the pop of interestUsed to forecast elections Ex: Picking a number of small election districts whose election returns in previous years have approximated the overall state returns.

113
Q

One-Way ANOVA

A

I/R DV w Norm

DV Measured Once

IV w >2 levels

114
Q

Data-Evaluation Validity

A

Facets of the evaluation that influence the conclusions we reach about the experimental condition and its effects

115
Q

Low Statistical Power

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityMajor threat to DEVPower is likelihood of demonstrating an effect or group difference when in fact there is a true effect in the world Can happen when samples are too small (not representative) or too large (too much variability)

116
Q

Efficacy research

A

conducting treatment in highly controlled conditions

117
Q

Factorial ANOVA

A

I/R DV w Norm

DV Measured Once

More than 1 IV

118
Q

Obtrusive measures

A

When subjects are aware their performance is being assessed

119
Q

Single-Group Cohort Design

A

identifies subjects who meet a particular criterion (e.g. …individuals released from prison…) and follows them over time.” A number of variables are assessed at the beginning of the study and often at other times, i.e. more than once, during the study. At the end of the study, the researcher examines which of the variables assessed predict(s) the outcome

120
Q

Test Sensitzation

A

External Validity ThreatPartcipants may respond differently to an intervention because the pretest shows them what the focus of assessment is

121
Q

Cross-Sectional Case-Control Design

A

compares groups that differ on the particular characteristic being studied on other variables that exist currently.

122
Q

Cultural Influences on Data Analysis

A

The major issue is cultural response sets—a tendency to respond in a certain way on tests or scales.When two cultures’ means differ, do not know whether there is a difference between the groups in levels of a construct or whether the two groups use a scale differently.People from collectivistic cultures may not use the ends of bipolar scales.People from one culture may check off more items on a list than people from another culture.

123
Q

Purposive Samples

A

Pick cases that are judged to be typical of the pop of interestUsed to forecast elections Ex: Picking a number of small election districts whose election returns in previous years have approximated the overall state returns.

124
Q

Construct Validity

A

Extent to which the measure reflects the construct (concept, domain) of interest

125
Q

Types of contruct validities

A

Single Operations and Narrow Stimulus SamplingExperimenter ExpectanciesDemand Characteristics Attention and Contact Accorded the ClientMneumonic: Single Experimenters Demand Attention or SADE

126
Q

Testing

A

Internal Validity ThreatEffects of repeated assessment “practice effect”group that receives pre and post without intervention can help rule this out

127
Q

Qualitative research - content anaylsis

A

refers to the identification of categories and subcategories in people’s responses. Quotes are used to help describe the categories. The categories “capture pertinent experiences and reactions.”

128
Q

Treatment as Usual (TAU)

A

routine or standard treatment that is usually provided at a clinic Advantages:1. People seeking treatment get it, so avoid an ethical issue.2. Likely to be less attrition than in a group not receiving treatment.3. Generally controls for common factors.4. More acceptable to therapists.

129
Q

No-Treatment Control Group

A

receives all of the assessments that the treatment group does but no intervention

130
Q

Generality across Measures, Settings and Time

A

External Validity ThreatThe extent to which the results extend to other measures, settings, or assesment occasions than those included in the study

131
Q

Three major types of studies done in psychology

A
  1. True Experiments2. Quasi-experiments3. Observational designs
132
Q

Cluster Sampling

A

first sample groupings or clusters, then sample individuals from theseCan be random used because it is difficult and expensive to get random or stratified random samplesLarge-scale surveys often use this methodAka multistage sampling because of the different stages involved

133
Q

History

A

Internal Validity ThreatAny event inside (except the IV/intervention) or outside of the experiment that may account for the results but it has to be a plausible explanation of the resultsControl group can help mitigate

134
Q

Single-Case Experimental Research Designs

A

Single-Case Experimental Research Designusually one participant or a few participant but could also be “a classroom, a school, a business, an entire city, or state.”In single-case designs, the effects of an intervention are assessed by comparing different conditions presented to the same client over time (for example, introducing and removing treatment). Key requirements:ongoing assessment: made before and during traetmentbaseline assessment: behavior is observed for several days before intervention begins Stability of performance (behavior): A stable rate of performance during baseline, characterized by no trend and minimal variation, is ideal, because it provides the best comparison for evaluating subsequent effects of treatment. If the client shows a worsening trend during baseline, and the intervention reverses that trend, we have impressive evidence that the intervention is beneficial.

135
Q

Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Signed Ranks Test or T-test for dependent samples

A

Ordinal DV or Non-Normality

Related Samples (within)

DV measured twice

136
Q

Wait-List Control Group

A

Control group receives treatment after the final assessment has been made time between pre and post assessments must be the same for the treatment group and for the wait-list control group

137
Q

True Experiment

A

allow the most control over the IVrandomly assign each person to a condition

138
Q

Pretest-Posttest Design (aka nonequivalent control group design)

A

Type of quasiGroup 1: nonR A1 X A2Group 2: nonR A1 A2

139
Q

Risk Factor

A

A predictor of some later outcome Correlation where we know that one variable comes before the otherRisk factor is not a causeIncreases the likelihood of some outcome

140
Q

Systematic Sampling

A

take every Kth person from your list problem can occur if there is a cyclical pattern in the list that coincides with the sampling interval

141
Q

Three major types of studies done in psychology

A
  1. True Experiments2. Quasi-experiments3. Observational designs
142
Q

Test Sensitzation

A

External Validity ThreatPartcipants may respond differently to an intervention because the pretest shows them what the focus of assessment is

143
Q

Cause

A

One variable influences either diretly or through other variables the apprearance of the outcome

144
Q

Strengths of Case-Control Design

A
  1. “The designs are well suited to study conditions that are relatively infrequent,” for example, individuals diagnosed with DID. 2. Less costly than following people over time, e.g., to see who develops a particular problem. Instead, people with and without the problem are compared.3. Since people are assessed at one point in time, attrition is not a problem. It is a problem when people are followed over time.4. These designs can go beyond showing that two variables are related and identify moderator variables.5. Can study variables that could not be studied experimentally (i.e. by assigning people to levels of the IV).6. Can match subjects on some variable(s).7. Can generate hypotheses about which variable caused which other variable.
145
Q

Initial Equivalence

A

Making sure the groups are as similar as possible so we can establish IV as cause of DVWe try to accomplish through random selection and random assignment

146
Q

Single Operations and Narrow Stimulus Sampling

A

Construct Validity Sometimes a single set of stimuli, investigator or other facet of the study that the investigator considers irrelevant may contribute to the impact of the experimental manipulation Also a type of external validity but in construct it’s not about generalizability but rather not being able to separate “active ingredient” from other variables

147
Q

Selection Biases

A

Internal Validity Threatdifferences between groups before the intervention or experimental manipulation because of selection or assignment of groupsOne form is using different selection methods for two groupsOften a problem when using groups that already exist (i.e. classes or hospital wards)

148
Q

Maturation

A

Internal Validity Threatchanges that result from processes internal within the participantsOnly a problem when the effects of maturation cannot be separated from the effects of the intervention Often go together with threats due to historyControl group can help mitigate

149
Q

Multiple Comparisons and Error Rates

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityWhen multiple statistical tests are completed the likelihood of chance finding is increasedi.e. .05 alpha is only for one test. alpha goes above .05 when you do multiple tests a.k.a “experiment-wise error rate”

150
Q

Obtrusive measures

A

When subjects are aware their performance is being assessed

151
Q

Multigroup Cohort Design

A

follows two or more groups over time “to examine outcomes of interest.” “One group is identified because they have an experience, condition, or characteristic of interest; the other group is identified who does not

152
Q

Novelty Effects

A

External Validity ThreatIt is possible that the effect of an experimental manipulation or intervention might in part be due to its novelty

153
Q

Types of Data-Evaluation Validity

A

Low Statistical PowerUnreliability of the MeasuresMultiple Comparisons and Error RatesParticipant HeterogeneityVariability in ProceduresErrors in Data Recording, Analysis, and ReportingRestricted Range of the MeasuresMisreading or Misinterpreting the Data AnalysesMenumonic: LUMP VERM

154
Q

Multiple-Treatment Interference

A

External Validity ThreatDo not know whether a particular treatment would have been effective by itself if it is administered along with another treatment or after another treatmentAlso, when one task is given and then preceded by other tasks Can refer to therapy or to different conditions in an experiment

155
Q

Factorial Designs

A
  1. Factorial designs allow investigation of two or more independent variables at the same time, i.e. in one study. Each variable has two or more levels (or conditions).Four box table
156
Q

Solomon Four-Group Design

A

Type of true experimental designGroup 1: R A1 X A2 Design 1Group 2: R A3 A4 Group 3: R X A5 Group 4: R A6 Design 2Pros:1. Controls for the usual threats to internal validity.2. Can measure the effect of pre-testing (A4 vs. A6) because they differ only in that Group 2 got the pretest and Group 4 did not.3. Can measure the interaction effect of pre-testing and the intervention (A2 vs. A5).

157
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

members of groups in the pop are selection in proportion to their representation in the pop

158
Q

Pretest-Posttest Design (aka nonequivalent control group design)

A

Type of quasiGroup 1: nonR A1 X A2Group 2: nonR A1 A2

159
Q

Restricted Range of the Measures

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityA measure may have a very limited range (total score from high to low) and that may interfere with showing group differences. Not enough variablity in scores to show difference in group

160
Q

Observational Designs

A

Researcher does not create the IVvariable of interest is studed by selecting subjects who vary in the characteristic or experience of interest people come to the study with their level of IV (e.g. gender, ethnicity, etc.) many variables that we study can only be researched in observational designs because it is not psosible and/or not ethical to assign people to levels of the IV (e.g. studying the effects of parental divorce on children)

161
Q

Nonspecific Treatment or Attention-Placebo Control Group

A

Get everything except actual treatment (including attention) Difficult to have expectations for improvement without using an intervention Issues with APCG can be avoided by using Treatment as Usual (TAU)

162
Q

Logistic Regression

A

Probability of Being in a Group

Multiple IVS (I/R and Nominal)

One DV (Nominal)

163
Q

Types of contruct validities

A

Single Operations and Narrow Stimulus SamplingExperimenter ExpectanciesDemand Characteristics Attention and Contact Accorded the ClientMneumonic: Single Experimenters Demand Attention or SADE

164
Q

Discriminant validity

A

correlation between measures that are expected not to relate to each other or to assess dissimilar and unrelated constructs

165
Q

Cross-Sectional Case-Control Design

A

compares groups that differ on the particular characteristic being studied on other variables that exist currently.

166
Q

ABAB Design

A

Single-Case Experimental Research Designthere is a baseline condition (A), when there is no intervention; second an intervention condition (B); and then A and B are repeated. The effects of the intervention are clear if performance improves (e.g. less violent behavior) during the first B, reverts to close to original levels during the second A, and improves with the second B. If there were only the first A and B, the design would be pre-experimental because factors other than the intervention could not be ruled out as causing any change in behavior. (Graph)Problems: a. The return to baseline during the second A shows that the improvement was not lasting.b. There are ethical questions about removing a treatment that is helpful and thereby making the client worse.

167
Q

Generality across Measures, Settings and Time

A

External Validity ThreatThe extent to which the results extend to other measures, settings, or assesment occasions than those included in the study

168
Q

Convergent validity

A

extent to which two measures that assess similar or related constructs correlate with each other

169
Q

Reactive measures

A

If awareness of assessment leads persons to respond differently from ow they would usually respond

170
Q

Multiple Regression

A

Prediction of Score or Degree of Relationship Among Variables

Multiple IVS (I/R and Nominal)

One DV (I/R)

171
Q

Factorial ANOVA

A

I/R DV w Norm

DV Measured >2 (within)

172
Q

Restricted Range of the Measures

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityA measure may have a very limited range (total score from high to low) and that may interfere with showing group differences. Not enough variablity in scores to show difference in group

173
Q

No-Contact Control Group

A

no contact with the research project and do not know they are in a treatment Assessment appear to them as a routine part of some other activity difficult because violates informed consent pretty rare

174
Q

Nonrandomly Assigned or Nonequivalent Control Group

A

—“help rule out specific rival hypotheses and decrease the plausibility of specific threats to internal validity,” like history, maturation, or testing. “Such a group may be used when a no-treatment control group cannot be formed through random assignment.”

175
Q

Threats to Internal Validity

A

Statistical RegressionMaturationInstrumentation Testing HistorySelection BiasesAttrition Diffusion or Imitation TreatmentSpecial Treatment or Reactions of Controls Mneumonic: SMITHS ADS

176
Q

Strengths of Cohort Designs

A
  1. Show that antecedent comes before outcome.2. Can be sure that the outcome did not bias assessments of the antecedents (because it had not occurred yet). 3. Assessments can be made at different times to show the progression from antecedent to outcome.4. “Cohort designs are good for testing theories about risk, protective, and causal factors.”
177
Q

Knowledge (Informed Consent)

A

is the potential participant given adequate information about the study and its potential risks and benefits? Is the information given in understandable language?

178
Q

Multiple Baseline Design

A

Single-Case Experimental Research Designa number of behaviors are examined and a baseline is established for each. The intervention (e.g. a reward) is applied contingently to one behavior at a time. If each behavior changes when the intervention is introduced, the effects can be attributed to the intervention rather than to extraneous variables. Could also be done with one behavior and a number of clients, or across different situations, settings, or times of dayProblems:a. With different behaviors, treatment of one behavior may cause changes in other behaviors.b. With different behaviors, the same intervention may alter some behaviors but not others.c. With different clients, there is a problem with withholding the treatment while the investigator is waiting to get to the last person.

179
Q

Yoked Control Group

A

used to make the groups equal on some variable, like number of sessions, so that variable will not be a confounding variable

180
Q

Confidentiality

A

Source of Protection“means that the information will not be disclosed to a third party without the awareness and consent of the participant.” Are exceptions—e.g. if child abuse is found.

181
Q

Oversample

A

take more participants of one group to be able to compare (ex: oversampling native americans to be able to compare them to other groups)

182
Q

Novelty Effects

A

External Validity ThreatIt is possible that the effect of an experimental manipulation or intervention might in part be due to its novelty

183
Q

4 conditions for mediator

A
  1. “The intervention (e.g. exercise) leads to change on [an] outcome measure (e.g. depression).2. The intervention alters the proposed mediator (e.g. …stress level).3. The mediator is related to [the] outcome (stress level is related to symptoms).4. Outcome effects (changes in depression) are not evident or substantially less evident if the proposed mediator (stress in this example) did not change.”
184
Q

Predictive validity

A

correlation of a measure at one point in time with performance on another measure or criterion at some point in the future

185
Q

Protective Factor

A

A characteristic or variable that prevents or reduces the likelihood of a deleterious outcome negatively correlated with the onset of some later problemprotective factor decreases the likelihood of the outcome

186
Q

Variablity in the Procedures

A

Data-Evaluation ValiditySame as particpant heterogeneity but has to do with procedures, instructions, etc.

187
Q

Low Statistical Power

A

Data-Evaluation ValidityMajor threat to DEVPower is likelihood of demonstrating an effect or group difference when in fact there is a true effect in the world Can happen when samples are too small (not representative) or too large (too much variability)

188
Q

Research Design

A

refers to the arrangement or ways to arrange conditions to evaluate the hypotheses

189
Q

Randomized controlled trails (RCTs)

A

When the IV involves an intervention, a true experiment becomes a RCT

190
Q

Confounds

A

factors that varied with the intervention and therefore could explain (be responsible for) the resultsConfounds are threats to construct validity

191
Q

Nonspecific Treatment or Attention-Placebo Control Group

A

Get everything except actual treatment (including attention) Difficult to have expectations for improvement without using an intervention Issues with APCG can be avoided by using Treatment as Usual (TAU)

192
Q

Volition (Informed Consent)

A

is participant giving consent free from coercion? Coercion is not necessarily force, but can be something like giving college students a choice between participating in two hours of research or writing a 20-page research paper. Another example would be offering poor people a lot of money to participate in research. Also, participants must be able to withdraw consent at any time.

193
Q

Psychometric properties

A

Reliability and Validity of a measure

194
Q

Internal Consistency

A

Type of Reliability. Degree of consistency or homogeneity of the items within a scale. Different reliability measures are used toward this end such as split-half, kuder-richardson 20 formula, and coefficient alpha

195
Q

Risk Factor

A

A predictor of some later outcome Correlation where we know that one variable comes before the otherRisk factor is not a causeIncreases the likelihood of some outcome

196
Q

Observational Designs

A

Researcher does not create the IVvariable of interest is studed by selecting subjects who vary in the characteristic or experience of interest people come to the study with their level of IV (e.g. gender, ethnicity, etc.) many variables that we study can only be researched in observational designs because it is not psosible and/or not ethical to assign people to levels of the IV (e.g. studying the effects of parental divorce on children)

197
Q

Nonrandomly Assigned or Nonequivalent Control Group

A

—“help rule out specific rival hypotheses and decrease the plausibility of specific threats to internal validity,” like history, maturation, or testing. “Such a group may be used when a no-treatment control group cannot be formed through random assignment.”

198
Q

Threats to External Validity

A

Multiple-Treatment Interference Sample CharacteristicsNarrow Stimulus SamplingReactivity of Experimental Arrangements Reactivity of AssessmentTest Sensitization Novetly EffectsGenerality across Measues, Setting and TimeMneumonic: M. SNRRTNG

199
Q

Cross-sectional studies

A

make comparisons between groups at a given point

200
Q

Construct Validity

A

what specific aspects of an intervention are responsible for observed change or an observed effect Distinguish from contruct validity of a testconsidered after threats to internal validity have been ruled out

201
Q

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

A

Type of True Experimental DesignR = random assignment A = Assessment or Observation X = Intervention Group 1: R X A1 Group 2: R A1

202
Q

Qualitative Research

A

Qualitative research studies people’s experience in depth.Qualitative research is inductive while quantitative research is deductive.Qualitative research tends to involve open-ended responses to questions, whilequantitative research usually involves selecting from possible answers given.While quantitative research tests theory, qualitative research generates theory.Qualitative research can assess reliability and validity.While quantitative research employs statistical analysis to analyze data, data analysis in qualitative research often involves identifying themes and categories.

203
Q

Maturation

A

Internal Validity Threatchanges that result from processes internal within the participantsOnly a problem when the effects of maturation cannot be separated from the effects of the intervention Often go together with threats due to historyControl group can help mitigate

204
Q

Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Design

A

Type of Multiple-Treatment Designs Order 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Group (orSequence) 1 A B C D 2 B A D C 3 C D A B 4 D C B AThis design is called a Latin Square

205
Q

Probability Sampling

A

Aka random samplingEach person in the population has equal chance of being choosen for the sample

206
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

members of groups in the pop are selection in proportion to their representation in the pop

207
Q

Narrow Stimulus Sampling

A

External Validity ThreatThe extent to which the results might be restricted to a restricted range of sampling materials (stimuli) or other features the experimenters used in the experimentStimulus characteristics include the experimenters, setting, interviewers or other factorsMost commonly occurs when there is one experimenter, one therapist, one setting, one taped story, etc.

208
Q

History

A

Internal Validity ThreatAny event inside (except the IV/intervention) or outside of the experiment that may account for the results but it has to be a plausible explanation of the resultsControl group can help mitigate

209
Q

Crossover Design

A

Type of Multiple-Treatment DesignsGroup 1: R A1 X1 A2 X2 A3Group 2: R A4 X2 A5 X1 A6  Pretest Participants are randomly assigned to groups (i.e. orders) and the two groups receive the two treatments (X1 and X2) in different order. The pretest is sometimes omitted.

210
Q

Types of Data-Evaluation Validity

A

Low Statistical PowerUnreliability of the MeasuresMultiple Comparisons and Error RatesParticipant HeterogeneityVariability in ProceduresErrors in Data Recording, Analysis, and ReportingRestricted Range of the MeasuresMisreading or Misinterpreting the Data AnalysesMenumonic: LUMP VERM

211
Q

Crossover Design

A

Type of Multiple-Treatment DesignsGroup 1: R A1 X1 A2 X2 A3Group 2: R A4 X2 A5 X1 A6  Pretest Participants are randomly assigned to groups (i.e. orders) and the two groups receive the two treatments (X1 and X2) in different order. The pretest is sometimes omitted.

212
Q

Brief Measures and Short Forms

A

Brief measures can be used, but their reliability and validity must be demonstrated. Short forms of longer scales can be used if their reliability and validity are OK, e.g.Symptom Checklist has 90 questions, but shorter forms can be used. Sometimes use of a short form leads to having a possible range of scores that is restricted; thus it is harder to find group differences. Also, short forms “may not be appropriate if there are multiple subscales or characteristics in a measure.”

213
Q

4 conditions for mediator

A
  1. “The intervention (e.g. exercise) leads to change on [an] outcome measure (e.g. depression).2. The intervention alters the proposed mediator (e.g. …stress level).3. The mediator is related to [the] outcome (stress level is related to symptoms).4. Outcome effects (changes in depression) are not evident or substantially less evident if the proposed mediator (stress in this example) did not change.”
214
Q

Mixed ANOVA

A

I/R DV w Norm

1 within and 1 between

215
Q

Qualitative research - grounded theory

A

theory that is developed from observation and analysis. The theory comes out of the data.

216
Q

Cross-sectional studies

A

make comparisons between groups at a given point

217
Q

Quota Sample

A

Accidental Sample where you are trying to meet certain groups proprotionate to the pop Ex: interviewing x number of men and women

Research (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions