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Psychology > Research methods 1 - designing and planning research > Flashcards

Research methods 1 - designing and planning research Flashcards

Assessed throughout all papers and a specific section on Paper 2

1
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

The variable that we change/manipulate, the cause

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2
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

The variable that we measure, the effect

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3
Q

What are aims in psychological research?

A

An overview of what the researcher wants to achieve/investigate, a question that the psychologist wants to answer through their research, general statement of researcher’s intentions

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4
Q

What is operationalising?

A

Making the variables ready for operation in order to change the aim into a hypothesis

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5
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A clear, testable, measurable statement which makes prediction about what will happen in a piece of research

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6
Q

How is an independent variable made operationalised?

A

Making 2 levels so that two conditions can be compared to see exactly how much effect something has

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7
Q

What are the two conditions usually used in operationalising independent variables?

A

Experimental condition
Control condition

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8
Q

What is the experimental condition?

A

Where the IV has an effect, will show us the amount of effect a condition has actually had

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9
Q

What is the control condition?

A

Where the IV has no effect, baseline measurement

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10
Q

What is an alternative to these two conditions?

A

Just having two conditions of equal status and comparing them

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11
Q

How is a dependent variable made operationalised?

A

When we decide exactly how a factor will be measured in order to gain quantitative data

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12
Q

What are some ways to operationalise a DV?

A

On a scale
Number of
Levels on a questionnaire
Length in time
Etc

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13
Q

What are the two types of hypothesis?

A

Directional (one tailed) hypothesis
Non-directional (two tailed) hypothesis

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14
Q

When is a directional hypothesis appropriate to use?

A

If most/all previous existing research in field of study would lead us to expect that an effect will occur in one specific direction

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15
Q

When is a non-directional hypothesis appropriate?

A

If results of previous research are inconsistent or non-existent

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16
Q

What is a directional hypothesis (one tailed)?

A

Predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable in a specific direction

e.g. x will score higher/lower than y

Predicting a difference between two conditions and that the difference will only go in the direction stated by hypothesis, can only be used if there has been previous research

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17
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis (two tailed)?

A

States that changing the IV will have an effect on DV but doesn’t say in which direction

e.g. x will score differently than y

Hypothesis predicts a difference but this difference could be in either direction, used when we cannot be certain about results due to no/poor research

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18
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

Predicts that there will be no effect, must be present in all researches

e.g. there will be no difference between x and y

Psychologists hope to reject this null hypothesis in their conclusion but sometimes have to accept it

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19
Q

What is correlation?

A

A relationship between two things

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20
Q

How do researchers look at correlations?

A

Collect two pieces of data from lots of participants and look to see if the two things are linked in some way/if there is a relationship between the two things

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21
Q

What is a research hypothesis?

A

States what kind of relationship we expect between two operationalised variables (co-variables)

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22
Q

How can you tell if it’s a correlation?

A

Both pieces of information will be quantitative data

Never any mention of conditions or experimental designs

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23
Q

How can correlations be included in a hypothesis?

A

Include the two co-variables and indicate the expected relationship

In a directional hypothesis –> choose between positive or negative correlation

In a non-directional hypothesis –> state that there will be a correlation

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24
Q

What should an experimental hypothesis include? (4)

A

Fully operationalised

Include both conditions of the IV

Include exactly how the DV is being measured

Make a prediction of what will happen in the experiment (written in future tense)

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25
Q

“Attractive faces will be attributed more positive traits than less attractive faces”

What kind of hypothesis is this?

A

Directional hypothesis

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26
Q

“Participants who listen to pleasant music will rate photographs in terms of attractiveness differently to participants who listen to unpleasant music”

What kind of hypothesis is this?

A

Non-directional hypothesis

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27
Q

“There will be no difference between A-level grades of students taught online and students taught in the classroom”

What kind of hypothesis is this?

A

Null hypothesis

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28
Q

What is the purpose of nomothetic research?

A

To gain results which can be then generalised beyond the participants of the study

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29
Q

What is a target population?

A

The group of people we wish to investigate

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30
Q

What is representative sampling?

A

When we aim to gain a sample which is representative of the target population

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31
Q

What is something to note about issues with target populations?

A

Some participants may refuse to take part in the experiment and they are allowed to withdraw at any point due to ethical guidelines —> would leave a biased sample

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32
Q

What is random sampling?

A

When every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

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33
Q

How is random sampling carried out?

A

All names must be entered and then a sample is drawn our randomly

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34
Q

What are advantages of random sampling?

A

Large samples –> provides best chance for an unbiased representative sample as all members have an equal chance of selection

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35
Q

What are disadvantages of random sampling?

A

Large target populations –> time consuming or sometimes impossible

If sample is too small, could be biased

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36
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Selecting people who are available, accessible and willing at the time

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37
Q

What are advantages of opportunity sampling?

A

Convenient and ethical

Access to wide variety of participants

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38
Q

What are disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A

Likely to get unrepresentative sample–> biased by researcher who chooses people who look ‘helpful’

Also biased as will only be selecting from small subgroup of target population

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39
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Individuals who have chosen to be involved in a study in response to an advert

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40
Q

What are advantages of volunteer sampling? (5)

A

Quick
Convenient
Cheap
Ethical as people have already given consent
Participants unlikely to drop out

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41
Q

What are disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

A

Unrepresentative as leads to bias on the part of the participant

Sample will be biased due to participants being more likely to be highly motivated

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42
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Using a predetermined system with a target population
e.g. every 10th person

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43
Q

What are advantages of systematic sampling?

A

Unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system (non-opinion based)

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44
Q

What are disadvantages of systematic sampling?

A

Not completely random as not everyone has equal chance of being selected

If person selected does not want to take part in study then whole system breaks

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45
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Dividing the target population into important subcategories –> selecting members in proportion that they occur in the population

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46
Q

What are advantages of stratified sampling?

A

Effort made to make sample representative of target population

More representative than opportunity sampling due to equal representation of subgroups

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47
Q

What are disadvantages of stratified sampling?

A

Can be time consuming due to having to calculate proportions and identify subgroups

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48
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Refers to how accurately we are measuring the hypothesis in the experiment

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49
Q

What does it mean to control the experiment?

A

All other potential effects on the DV are held constant across the conditions or eliminated so that they do not change the amount of difference we are able to measure between conditions

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50
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

A variable that is not the IV but that could cause a change in the DV

Needs to be controlled

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51
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A variable that has not been controlled for and has caused a change in the DV, lowers internal validity

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52
Q

How are EVs used?

A

To evaluate research that has been completed by psychologists

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53
Q

What are examples of participating variables/individual differences?

A

Age
Gender
Background
IQ
Mood
Ethnicity
Beliefs
Personality

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54
Q

How can participant variables/individual differences become confounding?

A

If we are comparing one group in one condition to a very different group in the other condition

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55
Q

How can participant variables/individual differences be controlled? (3)

A

Repeated measures

Matched pairs

Random allocation

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56
Q

What are examples of situational variables?

A

Noise
Weather
Time of day
Temperature

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57
Q

How can situational variables become confounding?

A

If they affect one condition and not the other –> would change the difference between the two results

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58
Q

How can situational variables be controlled?

A

Standardise the procedure and instructions –> keep everything the same for each participant, use a controlled environment (lab)

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59
Q

What are the different categories of participant reactivity/effects? (4)

A

Demand characteristics

Hawthorne/Observer effect

Social desirability bias

Order effects

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60
Q

What is demand characteristics?

A

When participants guess the aim so change their behaviour accordingly (can be consciously or unconsciously)

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61
Q

What is participant reactivity/effects?

A

Problems that result from the participants being aware they are being tested in some way

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62
Q

How can demand characteristics be prevented from becoming confounding? (2)

A

Deception

Single blind

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63
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect/observer effect?

A

When participants are aware they are being observed and behave unnaturally as a result

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64
Q

How can the Hawthorne effect/observer effect be prevented from becoming confounding?

A

Deception

Covert observation (observer goes ‘undercover’)

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65
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

When participants answer questions in a way which makes them seem more normal

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66
Q

How can social desirability bias be prevented from becoming confounding?

A

Deception

Anonymity

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67
Q

What is order effects?

A

Can happen in experiments where same participants do both conditions

Will affect the second conditions result in some way (better or worse depending on task)

68
Q

How can order effects be prevented from becoming confounding? (3)

A

Counterbalancing

Independent groups/matched pairs

Big enough gap in time between experiments so practise is forgotten or fatigue recovered

69
Q

What are investigator effects and examples?

A

Cues or signals from the experimenter that affect performance of partciptants e.g. body language, tone of voice, deliberate manipulation

70
Q

When can investigator effects become confounding?

A

If it changes the behaviour of participants in a way that would affect the outcome

71
Q

How can investigator effects be controlled? (4)

A

Double blind

Inter-rater reliability

Random allocation

Randomisation

72
Q

What is deception?

A

Lying to participants about the aim

73
Q

What is single blind?

A

When participant is unaware of which condition they are in e.g. drug or placebo

74
Q

What is anonymity?

A

Participants assured that their data will be anonymous so more likely to answer truthfully

75
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Used to evenly spread order effects across both conditions by having half participants do condition A then B and other half do B then A (ABBA)

Means order effect are controlled as they affect both conditions equally

76
Q

What is double blind?

A

Neither researcher or participant knows which condition they are in

77
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

Independent raters rate same behaviour as the researcher and check for agreement

78
Q

What is random allocation?

A

When experimenter does not choose which condition to allocate participants to- it is just random

79
Q

What is randomisation?

A

When experimenter does not choose which stimuli to present to participants- it is done randomly

80
Q

What is the experimental design of independent groups?

A

Participants are randomly allocated to totally different groups and each group only completes one condiiton

81
Q

What are advantages of the experimental design of independent groups?

A

Minimises demand characteristics

Random allocation avoids experimenter bias

Avoids order effects

82
Q

What are disadvantages of the experimental design of independent groups?

A

Problem of participant variables

Larger number of participants needed

83
Q

What is the experimental design of repeated measures?

A

Same participants are used in all conditions

84
Q

What are advantages of the experimental design of repeated measures?

A

No participant variables

Fewer participants needed

85
Q

What are disadvantages of the experimental design of repeated measures? (3)

A

Order effects

Demand characteristics as aim is easier to guess

Will need to create 2 different tests of similar difficulty

86
Q

What is the experimental design of matched pairs?

A

Before experiment, participants given a pre-test to measure important personal characteristics that could affect DV (e.g. IQ in memory test)

Participants then matched and put into pairs with someone who scored similar –> one of the pair does one condition and the other in other condiiton

87
Q

What are advantages of the experimental design of matched pairs? (3)

A

Avoids order effects

Minimises chance of demand characteristics

Minimises participant variables

88
Q

What are disadvantages of the experimental design of matched pairs (2)?

A

Does not eliminate participant variables

Time consuming and difficult to achieve good match

89
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale, trial version of proposed study to test its effectiveness and make improvements before actual study goes ahead

90
Q

What do pilot studies help to do?

A

Help researcher to identify any potential problems with experiment

91
Q

What are some problems that can be identified through a pilot study? (3)

A

Equipment- questionnaire, word list, way test is being used

Way DV is being measured

Procedure being used- time lengths, design, control of EVs, instructions

92
Q

What is reliability?

A

Consistency of findings over time and over participants

Only reliable results are valuable to research and field of study

93
Q

How can we decide if a study is reliable or has reliable results?

A

Question whether study can be replicated and if the results will be consistent

94
Q

What does a study need in order for it to be replicated? (4)

A

Standardised instructions

Standardised procedures

Controlled environments

Well recorded in a report

95
Q

Which research method has high reliability?

A

Laboratory studies as they can be replicated and results checked for consistency

96
Q

Which research method has low reliability?

A

Case studies and interviews

Difficult or impossible to replicate –> results cannot be checked for consistency and therefore cannot be generalised

97
Q

How can a study’s reliability be improved? (4)

A

Standardised instructions

Standardised procedures –> controlled environment

Collect DV objectively and obtain quantitative data

Assess measures being used to collect DV for reliability

98
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

When same participants are presented with same test/questionnaire which measures DV on two separate occasions

Results then compared to determine if there is a strong positive correlation between the two

99
Q

Why is the test-retest reliability method used?

A

To check consistency of measuring tool

100
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

Two observers observe same person/group at same time using same method but do it independently

Results then compared to see if there is strong positive correlation between ratings

101
Q

Why is the inter-observer reliability method used?

A

Second observer used to check consistency/reliability of first observer

101
Q

Why is the inter-observer reliability method used?

A

Second observer used to check consistency/reliability of first observer

102
Q

What is validity?

A

Measuring accurately what you are intending to measure

103
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Whether the results are really showing the effect of the IV on the DV as stated in hypothesis

104
Q

How is internal validity controlled? (3)

A

Operationalising IV (control and baseline)

DV being measured appropriately

EVs being controlled for

105
Q

What is external validity?

A

Determining whether the results can be generalised and what can be done with the results outside of the study

106
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Determining whether the experimental task is an accurate representation of the real world in which the results will be applied to

107
Q

What is generalisability (population validity)?

A

Determining whether the sample is representative of the target population and whether it can be generalised

108
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Whether the behaviour being researched could have changed with passing of time

Whether the results of an older study are still accurate/relevant

109
Q

What is face validity?

A

Simple way of assessing validity, involves extent to which the measure in question looks like it measures what it claims to measure

Whether it appears to be effective ‘on the face of it’

110
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Assess validity by correlating participants’ scores with another measure already known to be valid due to being already established

New measure is valid if it achieves similar results for same participant

111
Q

How can we improve a study’s validity? (4)

A

Use large sample

Use representative sampling techniques (e.g. stratified)

Control EVs

Measure DVs in meaningful/realisitic way

112
Q

What are the 4 ethical principles for psychological research?

A

Respect

Responsibility

Competence

Integrity

113
Q

Who sets out the ethical conduct expected for psychological research?

A

British Psychological Society (BPS)

114
Q

Why is it important that psychologists follow these ethical guidelines?

A

Ensures partcipants are not harmed

Allows psychologist to carry on research using people

Psychologists will go to jail if guidelines not followed

115
Q

What is an ethics proposal?

A

Submitted by psychologists to BPS before research is carried out to identify potential risks or ethical dilemmas

116
Q

What must an ethics proposal include?

A

Identify relevant ethical issues

Alternative courses of action

Advantages and disadvantages

Ethical grounds of chosen course of action

117
Q

What is a cost-benefit analysis?

A

Harm to participants as a consequence of research must be balanced against ends

Value of research to society must be balanced against cost to participants

118
Q

What are the 8 ethical issues?

A

Respect

Privacy and confidentiality

Informed consent

Right to withdraw

Protection from harm

Incentives

Advice

Debriefing

119
Q

What are the 4 most important ethical issues (DRIP)?

A

Debriefing

Right to Withdraw

Informed consent

Protection from harm

120
Q

What is respect?

A

Psychologists should respect differences and avoid unfair or prejudice practices

121
Q

What is privacy and confidentiality?

A

Researcher must guarantee anonymity and protection of recorded personal data

Participants should be referred to as numbers or letters

122
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Ensuring all participants are given full information on nature and purpose of research and their role in it

Observations should be limited and researchers should avoid intentional deception

123
Q

What is right to withdraw?

A

Ensuring clients are aware they can stop at any time during the research and can choose to withdraw any of their data

124
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Eliminating potential risks to psychological well-being, physical health, personal values or dignity

Animals –> highest standard of animal welfare

125
Q

What is incentives?

A

Refrain from using financial compensation

Right to withdraw not affected by receipt or offer of any financial compensation

126
Q

What is advice?

A

Refer clients to alternative sources of assistance if required after research

127
Q

What is debriefing?

A

All relevant details of study should be explained afterwards so that participants are aware of outcomes

Does not justify deception

128
Q

What is issues with validity relating to right to withdraw?

A

If p’s withdraw –> sample size made smaller, lowers population validity, attrition bias

129
Q

What is issues with validity relating to protection from harm?

A

Lowers ecological validity, cannot do experiments which deter from everyday life, use less traumatic versions

130
Q

What is issues with validity relating to informed consent?

A

Demand characteristics, p’s more likely to guess aim, lowers internal validity

131
Q

How can informed consent be dealt with?

A

Give p’s full info about aims and their role, check they understand, sign

132
Q

How can right to withdraw be dealt with?

A

Let p’s know at start in consent form, at end in debrief form and during study

133
Q

How can protection from harm be dealt with?

A

Risk to physical and psychological well-being should be no greater than in everyday life, stop research if this becomes a harm

134
Q

How can confidentiality be dealt with?

A

Make p’s aware in consent form, only refer to p’s as number or letter in data collection

135
Q

How can debriefing be dealt with?

A

P’s should be given full info at end, deception should be revealed, advice and support offered

136
Q

What is theory construction?

A

Occurs through gathering empirical evidence for specific predictions that arise from general laws and principles of theory

137
Q

How does theory construction happen?

A

Inductive phase then deductive phase

138
Q

What is the inductive phase?

A

Bottom up
Observations yield info that is used to formulate theories as explanations

139
Q

What is the deductive phase?

A

Top down
Predictions made from theories in form of testable hypotheses, tested, yield data to be analysed
Leads to theory adjustment or validation

140
Q

What is the hypothetico-deductive model of reasoning?

A
  1. Observation/description of behaviour
  2. Formulation of hypothesis to explain behaviour, predict existence of other behaviours or predict results
  3. Conduct experimental tests
  4. Interpret and verify findings to further modify/support theory
141
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

Set of shared assumptions and agreed methods, within scientific discipline

142
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

Result of scientific revolution, significant change in dominant unifying theory within scientific discipline

143
Q

What are the features of science (FORE)?

A

Falsification
Objectivity
Replicability
Empirical methods

144
Q

What is falsification?

A

When scientific theory/hypothesis can be found to be false
Observe and measure variables then replicate research procedures with different situations- can it be found to be false?

145
Q

What is objectivity?

A

Perceived without distortion of personal feelings or interpretation

Diminish possibility of unconscious bias–> use standardised instructions, operationalised variables, double-blind

146
Q

What is replicability?

A

Repeating reseach under same conditions to see if results are consistent, research must be written up fully and clearly

Effects that occur in study more likely to be reliable if they occur in repeat of study

Replication increases reliability

147
Q

What are empirical methods?

A

Observations based on sensory experiences –> physically test and measure, rigorous observations

148
Q

What is the problem of reductionism when evaluating the worth of scientific method?

A

Only one specific part of whole complex area studied in isolation to test cause and effect

Vast majority of study and experimentation uses reductionism, psychology is a science

149
Q

What is the problem of determinism when evaluating the worth of scientific method?

A

Sees human behaviour as product of forces beyond control of individual, people have no control over actions

Internal and external forces control person’s behaviour –> scientific, behaviour should be predictable

Can identify cause and effect relationships, generalise to all people, develop treatments

Treats people like machines, takes away individual responsibility

150
Q

What are some strengths of scientific approach in psychology?

A

-More highly respected, more funding, more p’s for research

-Objective, reliable findings to be generalised, treatments used on large groups

-Applications which improve lives in quick and cheap way

151
Q

What are some limitations of scientific approach in psychology?

A

-Expectations of p’s may influence results, research can never be fully scientific

-Ethical restrictions

-Uses artificial environments in research, implications for ecological validity

-Aspects of psychology are unobservable and can only be inferred

152
Q

Why are psychological reports needed?

A

To allow communication between researchers for progress

To allow replications to check results

153
Q

What are sections in psychological reports?

A

Abstract

Introduction

Method

Results

Discussion

Referencing

154
Q

What is the abstract?

A

Summary of research, one paragraph- aims, hypotheses, results, conclusions

Inform reader of content of study

155
Q

What is the introduction?

A

Review of background research, justification leading to aim and hypothesis

Justify current research, explain which theories it could validate/modify

156
Q

What is the method?

A

Design, variables, type of study, p’s, materials, procedure

To enable research to be evaluated/replicated

157
Q

What is the results section?

A

Descriptive analysis- measure of central tendency and dispersion

Inferential/statistical analysis- no raw data

Communicate findings so others can validate/modify theories

158
Q

What is the discussion?

A

Explanation of findings, conclusion of how findings are related to aim/hypothesis, implications/applications

Evaluation of methodology, possible modifications

159
Q

What is referencing?

A

Citing all references to other research

Allow readers to locate other research

160
Q

What are materials used to address participants?

A

Standardised instructions

Brief/consent forms

Debrief forms

161
Q

What is required in a consent form?

A

Addressed to participant

Polite tone

Purpose of study

Relevant ethical issues

Length of time they are required

Where to go, what to do

Thank for time

Check understanding, sign

162
Q

What is required in standardised instructions?

A

Addressed to participant

Polite tone

Purpose of study

Relevant ethical issues

Length of time they are required

Where to go, what to do

163
Q

What is required in debrief form?

A

Addressed to participant

Polite tone

Purpose of study

Relevant ethical issues

Thank for time

Where to seek additional info

Reveal any deception

164
Q
A

Psychology (13 decks)

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