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psychology paper 2 > research methods > Flashcards

research methods Flashcards

1
Q

define content analysis

A

indirect observation of behaviour within the media and can produce qualitative data and quantitative data

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2
Q

stages of content analysis

A

data is collected, researcher reads and examines data, identify coding units, apply coding units, tally, theme

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3
Q

2 strengths of content analysis

A

less ethical issues, produces quantitative and qualitative data

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4
Q

limitation of content analysis

A

subjective

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5
Q

define case studies

A

in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual or small group

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6
Q

define longitudinal studies

A

case studies that take place over a long period of time and may involve gathering data from family and friends

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7
Q

2 strengths of case studies

A

offer rich in depth detail increasing validity, generate hypothesis for future study

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8
Q

2 limitations of case studies

A

can’t generalise, low in validity (subjective)

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9
Q

define reliability

A

study or test result should be consistent and be able to be reproduced

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10
Q

define external reliability

A

how consistent/reliable a measuring instrument is across different times and situations

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11
Q

define test retest

A

same test/study is conducted with the same people on more than one occasion and checked for a significant positive correlation

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12
Q

test retest steps

A

plot the 1st test, plot the 2nd test, see if there’s a significant correlation, Spearman’s statistic test

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13
Q

limitation of test retest

A

practice effects

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14
Q

define inter-observer reliability

A

having 2 observers making recordings of same behaviour, at same time but independently. compared to see if they’re similar

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15
Q

define validity

A

does the test measure what it claims to measure

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16
Q

define face validity

A

on the face of it, does the test look valid

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17
Q

define concurrent validity

A

group of people are given a new test and then an established measure of the same ability

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18
Q

define ecological validity

A

extent to which findings can be generalised

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19
Q

define temporal validity

A

extent to which findings can be generalised to other historical times and eras

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20
Q

improving reliability - questionnaires

A

ambiguous or complex questions removed, replacing open questions with closed questions

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21
Q

improving reliability - interviews

A

using same interviewer to avoid leading questions

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22
Q

improving reliability - experiments

A

standardised instructions and procedures

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23
Q

improving reliability - observation

A

operationalisation and explanation of behavioural categories

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24
Q

improving validity - questionnaires

A

lie scale to control effects of social desirability bias, anonymous

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25
Q

improving validity - qualitative methods

A

interpretive validity, triangulation

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26
Q

improving validity - experiments

A

control groups, single blind and double blind procedures

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27
Q

improving validity - observations

A

covert observations, behavioural categories operationalised

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28
Q

analysing data

A

decide level of measurement, decide descriptive statistics, choose statistical test

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29
Q

levels of measurement

A

nominal, ordinal, interval

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30
Q

define nominal data

A

categories

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31
Q

weakness of nominal data

A

least sensitive measure, only use the mode

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32
Q

define ordinal data

A

rank or position

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33
Q

weakness of ordinal data

A

doesn’t show actual difference, very subjective

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34
Q

strengths of ordinal data

A

more information than nominal, uses median, mode and range

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35
Q

define interval data

A

precise scales

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36
Q

strengths of interval data

A

most sensitive, uses mean, mode, median, range, standard deviation

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37
Q

measures of central tendency

A

mean, median, mode

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38
Q

define mean

A

average

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39
Q

strengths of mean

A

most information, most sensitive

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40
Q

mean limitations

A

greatly affected by extreme scores

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41
Q

define median

A

central number

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42
Q

median strengths

A

not affected by extreme scores

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43
Q

median limitations

A

not as sensitive

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44
Q

define mode

A

most common

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45
Q

mode strengths

A

not affected by extreme scores

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46
Q

mode limitations

A

rarely useful in small sets

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47
Q

define bimodal

A

two modes

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48
Q

measures of dispersion

A

range, standard deviation

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49
Q

define range

A

spread of a set of scores

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50
Q

range strengths

A

easy to calculate and understand

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51
Q

range limitations

A

distorted by extreme values, doesn’t say if scores are clustered or not

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52
Q

define standard deviation

A

how far each score is away from mean

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53
Q

standard deviation strengths

A

all scores are used, more sensitive

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54
Q

standard deviation limitations

A

time consuming

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55
Q

spearmans rho

A

correlation, ordinal data

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56
Q

Pearson

A

correlation, interval data

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57
Q

chi squared

A

difference, unrelated, nominal data

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58
Q

mann whitney

A

difference, unrelated, ordinal data

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59
Q

unrelated t test

A

difference, unrelated, interval data

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60
Q

binominal sign test

A

difference, related, nominal data

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61
Q

wilcoxon

A

difference, related, ordinal data

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62
Q

related t test

A

difference, related, interval data

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63
Q

unrelated design

A

independent measures design

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64
Q

related design

A

matched pairs or repeated measures design

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65
Q

define significance level

A

probability that results have occurred by chance

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66
Q

1% significance level

A

medical trials and previous research. 99% sure results are due to test, not due to chance

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67
Q

5% significance level

A

everyday psychological testing. 95% sure results are due to test, not due to chance. reduces type 1 and type 2 error

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68
Q

10% significance level

A

pilot study. 90% sure results are due to test, not due to chance

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69
Q

type 1 error

A

when we say results are significant but they aren’t significant. reject H0, accept H1

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70
Q

type 2 error

A

when we say results aren’t significant but they are significant. reject H1, accept H0

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71
Q

define histograms

A

shows data is continuous

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72
Q

scientific approach in psychology aims

A

describe, understand, predict and control behaviour

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73
Q

define paradigm

A

shared set of assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
SLT - physical observes, experiments
psychodynamic - inference

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74
Q

define paradigm shift

A

result of a scientific revolution; significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline
biological/biopsychology - new medicines

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75
Q

define theory construction and hypothesis testing

A

theory should be testable so it can be supported or falsified. to do this, we arrive at a hypothesis
SLT - children learn through imitating and observing role models
psychodynamic - unconscious mind controls behaviour

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76
Q

define falsifiability

A

principle that a theory can’t be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proven untrue
SLT - conducting experiments
psychodynamic - inference

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76
Q

define empirical method

A

scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
SLT - experiments
psychodynamic - no experiments

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77
Q

define objectivity

A

when all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence research process
SLT - control group and standardisation
psychodynamic - case studies

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78
Q

define replicability

A

extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated - can they be repeated now and in 20 years
SLT - yes
psychodynamic - no

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79
Q

define confidentiality

A

participants data and results remain confidential

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80
Q

define lack of confidentiality

A

participants data has been released without consent

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81
Q

define deception

A

participants shouldn’t be lied to about true aim of research

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82
Q

what must the researcher ensure if deception is essential

A

there’s no other way to carry out the procedure, debrief participants, consult with colleagues

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83
Q

define right to withdraw

A

participants have right to withdraw at any point, payment doesn’t alter this

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84
Q

define lack of right to withdraw

A

participants feel like they must continue and they can’t leave the study

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85
Q

define informed consent

A

researcher must attempt to get real consent from participants. can only be possible when they full understand the study

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86
Q

consent for children

A

obtained by parents

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87
Q

consent for adults with impairments

A

obtained by someone who would know if the person would like to take part

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88
Q

define lack of informed consent

A

participants haven’t been told enough about the study to make an informed decision

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89
Q

define protection from harm

A

participants should be protected from psychological and physical harm

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90
Q

define brief

A

said to participants before the study

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91
Q

consent form

A

participants should be issued with consent letter or form

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92
Q

define presumptive consent

A

similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, if they agree, original participants consent is presumed

93
Q

define standardised instructions

A

same clear, verbal or written instructions

94
Q

define debrief

A

said to participants after the study to deal with deception and psychological harm

95
Q

define ethical committees

A

there’s a board of experts and ordinary people who check ethical issues and weigh up the value of research

96
Q

qualitative data

A

participants thoughts and feelings about an aspect of their life or particular experience

97
Q

quantitative data

A

measuring data in a numerical way

98
Q

define primary data

A

data collected first hand by researcher to test their own hypothesis

99
Q

primary data strengths

A

fits the job, authentic data

100
Q

primary data limitations

A

time consuming and effort

101
Q

define secondary data

A

data not personally collected by researcher but used by them

102
Q

secondary data strengths

A

inexpensive, requires minimal effort

103
Q

secondary data limitations

A

may not fit the research completely, out of date, incomplete

104
Q

define meta analysis

A

variety of studies done on particular topic area are summarised together and their findings are collated through statistical testing

105
Q

meta analysis strengths

A

less time and money, increases validity, generalisations

106
Q

meta analysis limitations

A

researcher bias

107
Q

define independent variable

A

variable is manipulated or altered by experimenter

108
Q

define dependent variable

A

main measured outcome of experiment due to manipulation of independent variable

109
Q

define extraneous variable

A

variables other than IV that may have an effect on DV if not controlled

110
Q

define confounding variables

A

any variable other than IV that may affect DV so we can’t be sure of the true source of changes to DV

111
Q

define demand characteristics

A

participants change their behaviour to please or displease the researcher

112
Q

define investigator effects

A

any effect of investigators behaviour on outcome of experiment

113
Q

define randomisation

A

use of chance in order to control the effects of bias

114
Q

define standardisation

A

same formalised procedures and instructions

115
Q

define aim

A

general statement about intended purpose of the study

116
Q

define hypothesis

A

prediction about what will happen in a study, precise and testable statement

117
Q

define directional hypothesis

A

aware of any past research and expect similar results. makes clear the stop of difference that’s anticipated

118
Q

define non directional hypothesis

A

unaware of any past research or if findings were unclear or contradictory. doesn’t predict the way results will go

119
Q

define null hypothesis

A

IV will not affect DV

120
Q

define population

A

refers to a group of people who are the focus of researchers interest

121
Q

define sample

A

participants in the study

122
Q

define sampling frame

A

specific source used in drawing individuals from populations

123
Q

define volunteer sampling

A

involves advertising for volunteers. individuals who decide they want to be part of the study, approach the researcher and may become participants

124
Q

volunteer sampling strengths

A

easy, minimal input, less time consuming

125
Q

volunteer sampling limitations

A

volunteer bias

126
Q

define random sampling

A

every member of target population has an equal chance of being selected

127
Q

random sampling strengths

A

representative sample, least biased

128
Q

random sampling limitations

A

time consuming, bias sample by pure coincidence, participants refuse to take part

129
Q

define opportunity sampling

A

asking whoever is most easily available and willing to take part

130
Q

opportunity sampling strengths

A

time efficient, convenient, most economical method, easy to recruit

131
Q

opportunity sampling limitations

A

less likely to be representative, researcher bias

132
Q

define stratified sampling

A

allows researchers to make sure certain aspects of target population is reflected in sample

133
Q

stratified sampling steps

A

identify sub groups, proportions worked out, participants that make up sub groups are selected through random sampling

134
Q

stratified sampling strengths

A

avoids researcher bias, representative, generalisations

135
Q

stratified sampling limitations

A

time consuming, difficult to work out, complete representation isn’t possible

136
Q

define systematic sampling

A

nth person

137
Q

systematic sampling strengths

A

avoids researcher bias

138
Q

systematic sampling limitations

A

not representative

139
Q

sampling methods

A

volunteer, random, opportunity, stratified, systematic

140
Q

experimental designs

A

repeated measures design, independent groups design, matched pairs design

141
Q

define independent groups design

A

participants split up into number of groups needed, undergo one condition

142
Q

independent groups design strengths

A

no order effects, no demand characteristics

143
Q

independent groups design limitations

A

participant variables aren’t controlled

144
Q

define matched pairs design

A

participants tested beforehand and then paired up with someone who has key variables. one person from each pair will experience a different condition

145
Q

matched pairs design strengths

A

no order effects, some participant variables controlled

146
Q

matched pairs design limitations

A

difficult to find participants who match, time consuming, loss of one member is loss of botj

147
Q

define repeated measures design

A

undergo one condition and then undergo the other condition immediately or at a later date

148
Q

repeated measures design strengths

A

participant variables reduced, half as many participants needed

149
Q

repeated measures designs limitations

A

order effects

150
Q

define random allocation

A

everyone has an equal chance of being in either condition

151
Q

random allocation strengths

A

reduces researcher bias, establish cause and effect

152
Q

random allocation limitations

A

twice as many participants needed, participants hard to find, time consuming

153
Q

define counterbalancing

A

balance order effects

154
Q

counterbalancing limitations

A

time consuming, may guess aim

155
Q

experimental methods

A

laboratory experiment, field experiment, natural experiment, quasi experiment

156
Q

define lab experiments

A

allow empirical measurements to be made in highly controlled settings. involved changing IV and measuring DV

157
Q

lab experiments strengths

A

highly controlled, establish cause and effect, standardised procedure, easily repeated, reliability

158
Q

lab experiments limitations

A

demand characteristics, work out the aim, low ecological validity, artificial environment, can’t generalise

159
Q

define field experiments

A

natural everyday setting. IV manipulated and DV is measured

160
Q

field experiments strengths

A

high ecological validity, less artificial, unaware they’re taking part so no demand characteristics

161
Q

field experiments limitations

A

can’t control extraneous variables, difficult to establish cause and effect, difficult to replicate

162
Q

define natural experiments

A

natural setting. IV isn’t manipulated, occurs naturally

163
Q

natural experiments strengths

A

high ecological validity, generalised, less likely to demonstrate demand characteristics

164
Q

natural experiments limitations

A

can’t eliminate extraneous variables, lack of control, difficult to establish cause and effect, difficult to replicate

165
Q

define quasi experiments

A

IV based on existing differences between people

166
Q
A
167
Q

define pilot studies

A

small scale trial run to iron out any difficulties before main study

168
Q

define peer review

A

process after research has been conducted to assess quality of it before its published, reviewed by psychologists not involved in research

169
Q

peer review strengths

A

anonymity, promotes and maintains high standards

169
Q

peer review limitations

A

publication bias

169
Q

define correlations

A

method of analysing data - looking for a reationship

169
Q

define positive correlations

A

high scores and high scores

169
Q

define negative correlation

A

high scores, low scores

169
Q

define no correlation

A

no relationship exists

170
Q

define correlation coefficient

A

number that varies between -1 and +1

171
Q

4 reasons for correlation results

A

A variable causes B variable, B variable causes A variable, third factor, coincidence

172
Q

correlation strengths

A

useful, suggest ideas for experimental research, less time consuming than experiments

173
Q

correlation limitations

A

only look for relationship. can’t tell us why something happens

174
Q

behavioural categories strengths

A

easier to quantify, more scientific, standardisation, replicate, reliability

174
Q

define observations

A

watching people and providing psychologists of a way of seeing what people do

175
Q

define behavioural categories

A

behaviour checklist, tally

176
Q

behavioural categories limitations

A

lack of inter observer reliability

177
Q

define event sampling

A

target behaviour or event is recorded every time it occurs

178
Q

event sampling strengths

A

records infrequent behaviour

179
Q

event sampling limitations

A

complex behaviour oversimplified

180
Q

define time sampling

A

observing at different times

181
Q

time sampling strengths

A

reduces number of observations

182
Q

time sampling limitations

A

unrepresentative

183
Q

observation types

A

covert, overt, naturalistic, controlled, participant, non participant

184
Q

define covert observation

A

participants behaviour is watched and recorded without consent

185
Q

covert observation limitations

A

ethical issues, no consent

185
Q

covert observation strengths

A

no demand characteristics

185
Q

overt observation strengths

A

find out more information, reasons for actions

185
Q

define overt observation

A

being watched and recorded with consent

185
Q

overt observation limitations

A

behaviour may be unnatural, observer effects, demand characteristics

185
Q

define naturalistic observation

A

recording of behaviour in participants natural environment

186
Q

naturalistic observation strengths

A

high ecological validity

186
Q

naturalistic observation limitations

A

lack of control, difficult to replicate, ethical issues

186
Q

controlled observation strengths

A

high control, standardisation, replicate, reliability

186
Q

define controlled observation

A

observation conducted in experimental setting

186
Q

define participant observation

A

researcher takes part in action

186
Q

controlled observation limitations

A

environment is artificial, lack ecological validity, can’t generalise

186
Q

participant observation strengths

A

fully immersed in groups actions, better understanding

186
Q

participant observation limitations

A

becomes subjective

187
Q

define nonparticipant observation

A

researcher doesn’t become part of the group

187
Q

nonparticipant observation strengths

A

not interfering with behaviour

187
Q

nonparticipant observation limitation

A

not fully understanding actions

187
Q

define open ended questionnaires

A

express ideas and opinions, no predetermined answers

188
Q

open ended questionnaires strengths

A

qualitative data, a lot of detail, description, opinions and reasons

189
Q

open ended questionnaires limitations

A

can’t analyse and compare, can’t be put into graphs, charts and percentages, can’t find patterns or trends

190
Q

define closed ended questionnaires

A

predetermined set of answers

191
Q

closed ended questionnaires strengths

A

quantitative data, easy to analyse and compare, grass, charts, percentages, find patterns and trends

192
Q

closed ended questionnaires limitations

A

no detail, description, and reasons

193
Q

define structured interviews

A

predetermined fix set of questions

194
Q

structured interview strengths

A

replicable, comparisons

195
Q

structured interviews limitations

A

miss opportunity to follow up on something

196
Q

define unstructured interviews

A

pre decided topic

197
Q

unstructured interview strengths

A

rich in detail, investigate persons answers, find possible explanations for behaviour

198
Q

unstructured interview limitations

A

difficult to analyse, time consuming

199
Q

define normal distribution

A

distribution and frequency of scores are the same on both sides

200
Q

define positive skew on distributions

A

long tail on right, mode on the left, mean on the right

201
Q

define negative skew on distrubtions

A

long tail on left, mean is on the left, mode is on the right

202
Q

attachment research into role of father

A

families now have flexible working arrangements and parents share childcare, meaning modern day parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy

203
Q

development of treatments for mental illness

A

with effective development of SSRIs, person can have their mental illness treated quickly and effectively and so they can return to work, reducing cost of absences from work

204
Q

reporting psychological investigations conventional format

A

abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, referencing

205
Q

abstract - reporting psychological investigations

A

short summary with main elements - aim, hypothesis, method, procedure, results, conclusion

206
Q

introduction - reporting psychological investigations

A

literature review, past research - relevant theories, concepts, studies, aims, hypothesis

207
Q

method - reporting psychological investigations

A

description of what researchers did - design, sample, materials, procedure, ethics

208
Q

results - reporting psychological investigations

A

summarise key findings - descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, raw data, qualitative/quantitative data

209
Q

discussion - reporting psychological investigations

A

summarise key findings/results, context of evidence, limitations, wider implications

210
Q

referencing - reporting psychological investigations

A

any source of material - author, date, title, place of publication, publisher

psychology paper 2 (3 decks)

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