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Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is an Experimental method?

A

Involved manipulation of an independent Variable to measure effect on dependent variable.

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2
Q

What are the different types of experimental methods?

A

Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi

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3
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate: its the purpose of the study.

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4
Q

What is the hypothesis?

A

A clear precise, testable statement, that states the relationship between variables to be investigated. Stated at the onset of any study.

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5
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

States the direction of the difference or relationship.

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6
Q

What is a non-Directional hypothesis?

A

This doesn’t state the direction.

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7
Q

What are Variables?

A

Anything that can vary or change within an investigation, variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes in to another.

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8
Q

What is the independent Variable (IV)?

A

Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher/ or changes naturally. So effect on DV can be measured.

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9
Q

What is the dependent variable (DV)?

A

Variable that is measured by the researcher, any affect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.

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10
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.

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11
Q

What is an Extraneous Variable (EV)?

A

Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on DV if not controlled. EVs are nuisance variables that don’t vary systematically with the IV.

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12
Q

What are Confounding Variables?

A

Any variable other than the IV that could affect the DV so we can be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. They vary systematically with the IV

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13
Q

What are Demand characteristics?

A

Cue from the researcher or situation that may be interrupted by participants as revealing purpose of study. This could lead to a pp changing their behaviour within the research situation.

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14
Q

What are Investigator effects?

A

An effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious/unconscious) on research outcome (the DV). Includes everything from the design of study to the selection of and interaction with participants during research process.

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15
Q

What is Randomisation ?

A

Use of chance in order to control for effects of bias when designing materials and deciding order of conditions.

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16
Q

What is Standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all pp in the study.

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17
Q

What is the experimental design?

A

Different ways in which the testing of pp can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.

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18
Q

What are the different types of experimental designs?

A

Independent groups - pp allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Repeated measures - all pp take part in all conditions.
Matched pairs - pairs of pp are first matched on some variables that may affect DV, one member assigned condition A and other condition B.

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19
Q

What is random allocation?

A

Attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures each pp has the same chance of being in one condition as the other.

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20
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half experience cond. A then B other experience cond. B then A. (ABBA)

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21
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

Takes place in controlled environment, where the researcher manipulates the IV and records effects on DV, whilst maintaining strict control of EV .

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22
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

Takes place in natural setting, where researcher manipulates the IV and records effect on DV.

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23
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

Where the change in the IV is because of the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher were not there. Researcher records effect on DV.

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24
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

Study that is almost an experiment but lacks key features, IV hasn’t been determined by anyone, variables simply exist (being old/young). This isn’t an experiment(strictly speaking).

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25
Q

What is population?

A

Group of people who are focus of researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.

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26
Q

What is a sample?

A

Group of people who take part in research, sample is drawn from target population and representative of that population.

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27
Q

What are sampling techniques?

A 
Method used to select people from population, include: 
Random sample
Systematic sample 
Stratified sample
Opportunity 
Volunteer
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28
Q

What is bias?

A

When certain groups may be over/under represented within sample selected, e.g. too many young people/of ethnic origin in sample. Limits extent to which generalisations can be made.

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29
Q

What is a generalisation?

A

Extent to which findings and conclusions from investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if sample of pp is representative of population.

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30
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

Conflict between rights of participant in research and goal of research to produce authentic, valid worthwhile data.

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31
Q

What is the BPS code of ethics?

A

A quasi-legal document produced by British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in UK about what behaviour is not acceptable when dealing with pp, these include: respect, competence, responsibility, integrity.

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32
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before real investigation is conducted. Aim is to check procedures, materials, measures, etc. Work and allow researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary.

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33
Q

What are the different types of observations?

A 
Naturalistic 
Controlled 
Covert
Overt
Participant 
Non-participant
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34
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in setting it would naturally occur.

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35
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in structured environment e.g. where some variables are managed.

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36
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

Behaviour is watched and recorded without there knowledge or consent.

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37
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Participants behaviour watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

38
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

Researcher becomes member of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded.

39
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

Researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded.

40
Q

What are behaviour categories?

A

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.

41
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Target behaviour or event is first established then researcher records this event every time it occcurs.

42
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Target individual or group I first established then researcher records behaviour in fixed time frame every 60 seconds or so.

43
Q

What is self-report technique?

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state/explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviour, experiences towards a topic.

44
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

Set of questions (referred to as items) used to assess persons thoughts and experiences.

45
Q

What is an interview?

A

Live encounter where person asks set of questions to assess interviewee’s thoughts and experiences. Questions may be preset (structured) or develop as interview goes on (unstructured).

46
Q

What are open questions?

A

Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish e.g why did you take up smoking?

47
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Which there is fixed choice of responses determined by question setter, e.g. do you smoke (yes/no).

48
Q

What is a correlation?

A

Mathematical technique in which a researcher investigated association between 2 variables called co-variables.

49
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases the other decreases. E.g following 2: number of people in room and amount personal space are negatively correlated.

50
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases so does the other. E.g number people in a room and noise are positively correlated.

51
Q

What is a Zero correlation?

A

When there is no relationship between co-variables. E.g association between number of people in room and whether forecast in Peru.

52
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Data expressed in words and non-numerical (but can later be converted to numbers for purpose of analysis).

53
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Data can be counted, usually given as numbers.

54
Q

What is primary data?

A

Info that has been obtained first-hand by researcher for purpose of a research project. This is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.

55
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Info that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates current research project. Such data might include work of other psychologists or government strategies.

56
Q

What is meta-analysis?

A

Refers to process of combining results from number of studies on particular topic to provide overall view. Could involve qualitative review of conclusions and/or quantitative analysis of results providing effect size.

57
Q

What are measures of central tendency?

A

The general term for any measure of average value in a set of data: mean, median, mode.

58
Q

What is a measure of dispersion?

A

General term for any measure of the spread or variation in set of scores.

59
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

Sophisticated measure of dispersion in set of scores. Tells us how scores deviate from mean by calculating difference between the mean and each score, all differences are added up and divided by number of scores. This give the variance, the standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

60
Q

What is a normal distribution?

A

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern. Mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak.

61
Q

What is a skewed distribution?

A

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.

62
Q

What is a positive skew?

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right side) of the exam and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.

63
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right side.

64
Q

What is statistical testing?

A

Provides way if determining whether hypothesis should be accepted or rejected. They tell us whether differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or have occurred by chance.

65
Q

What is peer review?

A

Assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in same field to ensure research is of high quality before publication.

66
Q

What are case studies?

A

An in depth investigation, descriptions and analysis of single individual, group, institution, event.

67
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Research technique enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, e.g. texts, emails, tv, film, other media.

68
Q

What is coding?

A

Stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of chosen categories.

69
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that encloses identifying implicit or explicit ideas within data. Themes emerge once data has been coded.

70
Q

What is reliability?

A

Consistency of findings from investigation or measuring device. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used.

71
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

Method of assessing reliability of questionnaire or psychological test by assessing same person on two separate occasions. Shows extent to which the test produces the same answers.

72
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

Extend to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. This is measured by correlating observations of two or more observers. +.80 means the data has high inter-observer reliability.

73
Q

What is validity ?

A

Extent to which can observed effect is genuine - does it measure what it is supposed to? Can it be generalised beyond research setting?

74
Q

What is face validity?

A

Basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it’s supposed to.

75
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Extent to which psychological measure related to an existing similar measure.

76
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations. Form of external validity

77
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras. Form of external validity.

78
Q

What are all the statistical tests?

A 
Chi-squared 
Mann-Whitney U 
Unrelated T-test 
Sign Test 
Wilcoxon 
Related T-test 
Spearman’s rho 
Pearson’s r
79
Q

What are the levels of measurement?

A

Quantitative data can be divided into 3 levels:
Nominal; form of categories, it is discrete as one item can only appear in one of the categories.
Ordinal; ordered in some way e.g. on a scale of 1-10. This lacks precision and is highly subjective.
Interval; based on numerical scales, it is more detailed and precise.

80
Q

What is probability?

A

Measure of likelihood that particular event will occur, where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty.

81
Q

What is significance?

A

A statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. Significant result means researcher can reject the null hypothesis.

82
Q

What is the critical value ?

A

When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut-off point between acceptance and rejection of null hypothesis.

83
Q

What is a Type 1 error ?

A

Wrongly rejecting the true null hypothesis (false positive)

84
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

Wrongly accepting the null hypothesis, a false positive.

85
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within scientific discipline.

86
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

The result of a scientific revolution, significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.

87
Q

What is objectivity?

A

When all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence research process.

88
Q

What is the empirical method?

A

Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.

89
Q

What is replicability?

A

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can e repeated by other researchers.

90
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

Principle that a theory can not be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.

Psychology (11 decks)

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