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Psychology 🧩 > RESEARCH METHODS (Year 1) - reached up to self report qs > Flashcards

RESEARCH METHODS (Year 1) - reached up to self report qs Flashcards

1
Q

What is aim?

A

The general purpose of your research

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2
Q

What is a one-tailed hypothesis known as

A

Alternative Hypothesis

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3
Q

What does the alternative hypothesis look for

A

states how there will be a difference (either directional or non directional) if one is correct they cross out the other one

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4
Q

What is the two-tailed hypothesis known as

A

Non directional

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5
Q

What does the null hypothesis look for

A

looks for no difference

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6
Q

What does the null hypothesis state

A

a hypothesis where the researcher suggests no difference in results

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7
Q

What is a bar graph

A

A bar chart is used to show frequency data for discrete (separate) variables.

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8
Q

How does a bar chart differ from a histogram

A

The histogram is used to showcase a graphical presentation that represents the data in the form of frequency.

whereas a bar chart is also a graphical representation of data and the information that is used for the comparison of two categories.

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9
Q

What is a correlational analysis

A

When two or more variables (co - variables) are measured in order to indemnify if there is a relationship between them (eg height and shoe size)

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10
Q

Advantages of correlation analysis

A

Can be used when it would ethical / impractical to conduct an experiment

If correlation is significant, the further investigation is justified

If correlation is jot significant, you FSH rule out a casual relationship

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11
Q

Disadvantages of correlational analysis

A

Correlation analysis cannot demonstrate cause and effect relationship between variables

There may be unknown variables that via explain why the co variables being studied are linked

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12
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

Number between 0 and 1, tells us how strong the correlation is.

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13
Q

What is +0.23 on correlational research

A

Weak positive

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14
Q

What is +0.89 in correlational research

A

Strong positive

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15
Q

What is -0.55 in correlational research

A

Moderate negative

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16
Q

What is a positive distribution

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left

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17
Q

What is negative distribution

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated to the right

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18
Q

What is the independent variable

A

The variable you change in order to have a different result

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19
Q

What is the dependant variable

A

The result that you measure

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20
Q

What is random allocation (control variable)

A

By randomly allocating people to either group you’re limiting the chances that group differences (e.g. the average age of one group is 20 years older than the other) will affect the results, so between-subject variability becomes a controlled variable.

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21
Q

What is counter balancing (control variable)

A

Counterbalancing is a procedure that allows a researcher to control the effects of nuisance variables in designs where the same participants are repeatedly subjected to conditions, treatments, or stimuli (e.g., within-subjects or repeated-measures designs).

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22
Q

What is randomisation

A

For example, participants are assigned to condition a or b first by tossing a coin or picking a name.

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23
Q

What is standardisation

A

Standardisation refers to the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical.

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24
Q

What are extraneous variables

A

Anything other than the independent variable that could influence your results. These should be accounted for before the experiment takes place

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25
Q

What are confounding variables

A

Anything other than the independent variable which had influenced your results which had not been accounted for before the experiment begins

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26
Q

What is ecological validity

A

How you can generalise your results into real life setting

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27
Q

What is ecological validity

A

Whether the results of a study can be generalised into real life settings

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28
Q

What is concurrent validity

A

the degree to which scores on the measure are associated with scores on another measure taken at the same time.

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29
Q

What is population validity

A

whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people (the population).

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30
Q

What is temporal validity

A

A study has temporal validity when the results of a study generalise across time

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31
Q

What is face validity

A

a simple way of assessing whether or not something measures what it claims to measure, which is concerned with its face value.

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32
Q

What is validity

A

Validity refers to how well a test actually measures what it was created to measure. Reliability measures the precision of a test, while validity looks at accuracy

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33
Q

What is reliability

A

The overall consistency of a measure

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34
Q

What is internal reliability

A

The extent to which a test is consistent within itself

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35
Q

What is external validity

A

Refers to the ability of the test to produce the same results each time it is carried out

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36
Q

What in informed consent

A

Knowing aims and giving your permission to take part of the study

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37
Q

What is deception

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information

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38
Q

What the the right to withdraw

A

Being able to leave when desired

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39
Q

What is confidentiality

A

where details should be kept private

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40
Q

what is debriefing

A

supposed to return participants to the state they were before the research

significantly important if DECEPTION is used

researchers must fully explain what the research involves and what results may show

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41
Q

what are independent groups

A

two separate groups of participants. one takes a condition a and the other does condition b

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42
Q

advantages of independent groups

A

fewer demand characteristics and no order effects

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43
Q

disadvantages of independent groups

A

You need twice as many participants so it is time consuming.

Individual differences or participant variables may make the comparisons unreliable, so you can use random allocation which may balance it out as everyone has an equal chance of being selected for each condition.

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44
Q

what are repeated measures

A

only one group of participants where the group partakes in both conditions

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45
Q

advantages of repeated measures

A

no individual difference

smaller sample size

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46
Q

disadvantages of repeated measures

A

demand characteristics

order effects - how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome

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47
Q

what is counter balancing

A

a procedure that allows a researcher to control the effects of nuisance variables in designs where the same participants are repeatedly subjected to conditions, treatments, or stimuli

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48
Q

what are matched pairs

A

a type of independent measure design where there are matched pairs between the two different groups

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49
Q

advantages of matched pairs

A

to get better statistics by controlling for the effects of other “unwanted” variables

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50
Q

disadvantages of using matched pairs

A

can be difficult to make perfect matches and is costly on money and time

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51
Q

name the three types of experiments

A

field, lab and natural

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52
Q

advantages of using a field experiment

A

less artificial than a lab experiment

represents reality

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53
Q

weaknesses of field experiment

A

extraneous variables less easy to control

ethical issues - participants may behave differently to normal which can be affected by environment

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54
Q

what is a lab experiment

A

an experiment that controls all relevant variables except from 1 variable in order to see different effects of it

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55
Q

advantages of a lab experiment

A

it is controlled and replicable

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56
Q

weaknesses of a lab experiment

A

ca be artificial and it can have demand characteristcs

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57
Q

what is the experimental group

A

the participants are the experiment who the researcher is testing. for example they may recieve a drug

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58
Q

what is a control group

A

the other condition where participants are taking part in the experiment, but no manipulation is used

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59
Q

what are demand characteristics

A

Participants may have determined the aims of the study; they might act deliberately to
please the researcher (or the opposite

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60
Q

how can demand characteristics be controlled

A

Counterbalancing/ randomisation

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61
Q

what is the term double blind and why is it used

A

Neither the participants or the researchers know which condition the participants are in. This is used in medical trials.

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62
Q

what is the term single blind and why is it used

A

The participants do not know what condition they are in. This is used for the experiment and control groups.

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63
Q

nature and use of natural experiment

A

where the researcher look at how the IV, which is not manipulated by the researcher, effects the DV. The IV is an event that occurs naturally., for example, single-sex schools and mixed schools.

64
Q

advantages of natural experiment

A

demand characterstics

ecological validity

65
Q

weaknesses of natural experiment

A

casual relationship

ethics

66
Q

what is a quasi experiment

A

the researcher is not able to use random allocation to put participants into different conditions. Naturally occurring IV, for example, biological sex and how it effects the DV

67
Q

advantages of quasi experiment

A

controlled

ecological validity

68
Q

disadvantages of quasi experiment

A

participant allocation and casual relationships

69
Q

what are behavioural categories

A

Categories defined by the researcher to observe during the
experiment. For example, aggression in children

70
Q

what is behavioural categories

A

Categories defined by the researcher to observe during the experiment. For example, aggression in children

71
Q

what is event sampling

A

Researcher records every event (if a behaviour category) when observed in the research.

72
Q

what is time sampling

A

Researcher records every behaviour within a certain time frame, for example, 10 minutes.

73
Q

what is controlled observation

A

What is it? Takes place in a laboratory so the researcher can control the conditions.

74
Q

name an experiment that used controlled observation

A

Bandura

75
Q

+ of controlled observation

A

replication is possible due to highly controlled procedure

extraneous variables can be controlled

76
Q
  • of controlled observation
A

lower ecological validity

participants may alter their behaviour if they know they are being observed

77
Q

what is naturalistic observation

A

Take place in a natural environment. They can be structured in advance to make sure no behaviours as missed

78
Q

+ natural observation

A

ecological validity

theory development

79
Q
  • of naturalistic observation
A

extraneous variables

observer bias

ethics

80
Q

what is covert observation

A

: researchers’ presence is unknown to the participants

81
Q

+ of covert observation

A

: The participants are more likely to behave naturally

82
Q
  • of covert observation
A

: gaining ethics can be difficult

83
Q

what is overt observation

A

researcher’s presence is obvious to participants

84
Q

+ of overt observation

A

more ethically sound than other methods because the participants are aware of the research.

85
Q
  • of overt observation
A

: people might change their behaviour if they know they are being observed

86
Q

what is participant observation

A

: when the researcher participates in the study

87
Q

+ of participant observation

A

the researcher develops a relationship with the group in the study

88
Q
  • of participant observation
A

the researcher loses objectivity by becoming part of the group

The participants might act differently if they know there is a researcher amongst them.

89
Q

what is non participant observation

A

when the researcher observes the activity without getting involved
in it

90
Q

+ of non participant observation

A

the researcher can remain objective throughout the study

91
Q
  • of non participant observation
A

the researcher loses a sense of the group dynamics by staying separate from the group.

92
Q

what is structured observation

A

The researcher determines precisely what behaviors are to be observed and uses a standardized checklist to record the frequency with which they are observed within a specific
time frame

93
Q

+ of structured observation

A

controlled and can be repeated

94
Q
  • of structured observation
A

might miss relevant information if too controlled

95
Q

what is unstructured observation

A

: The observer recalls all relevant behaviour but has no system

96
Q

+ of unstructured observation

A

all behaviour is recorded

97
Q
  • of unstructured observation
A

not controlled or repeatable

98
Q

what are interviews ( self report )

A

Used to gather qualitative research- can be face-to-face or over the phone

99
Q

advantages of using interviws

A

rich data

pilot study

100
Q

weaknesses of interviews

A

impractical

ethics

101
Q

what are structured interviews

A

Fixed set of questions that are the same for all participants

102
Q

strengths of structured interviews

A
  • Can be easily repeated
  • Requires less skill
  • Easier to analyse
103
Q

weakness of structured interviews

A
  • Interview bias can still occur
  • Social desirability
  • Data collection is restricted by pre-determined questions
104
Q

unstructured interviews what is it

A

The interview starts with some general aims and questions and then lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions

105
Q

strengths of unstructured interviews

A
  • Detailed information can be obtained
  • High validity – good rapport
  • Deeper insight into thoughts and feelings
106
Q

weakness of unstructured interviews

A
  • Interviewer bias
  • Requires training
  • Harder to analyse
107
Q

what are investigator effects

A

These can be anything that the researcher does which can affect how
the participant behaves. If a researcher’s expectations influence how they behave towards their participants, the participants might respond to demand characteristics

108
Q

what is researcher bias

A

The researchers’ expectations can influence how they design their study and how they behave towards the participants. Their expectations may influence how they take
measurements and analyze their data, resulting in errors that can lead, to accepting a hypothesis that
is actually false.

109
Q

how can you avoid research bias and investigator effect

A

A research assistant can conduct the research using standardised procedures to avoid bias/ effects.

110
Q

what is content analysis

A

Research analysing secondary data and data you have already collected.
Data is split into categories.

111
Q

process of content analysis

A

A representative sample of qualitative data is collected, for example, from an interview, magazine

Coding units are identified to analyse the data. A coding unit could be, for example, an act of violence.

The qualitative data is then analysed to see how often each coding unit occurs.

112
Q

what type of data is used for content analysis

A

secondary data

113
Q

+ of content analysis

A
  • Inexpensive
  • Ethics – participants are not directly involved, so less ethical issues.
114
Q
  • of content analysis
A
  • Data analysis- can be very time consuming
  • Subjectivity
115
Q

what is thematic analysis

A

Making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories.

116
Q

+ of thematic analysis

A
  • Qualitative data preserves the detail in the data
  • Creating hypotheses during the analysis allows for new insights to be developed
  • Some objectivity can be established by using triangulation – other sources of data are used to
    check conclusions
117
Q
  • of thematic analysis
A
  • Deciding which categories to use and whether a statement fits a particular category
  • Deciding what to leave out of the summary- data can be lost
  • Subjective
118
Q

how is mean calculated

A

Adding all the scores in a data set and then dividing by the number of scores

119
Q

how is mode calculated

A

The score that occurs most often

120
Q

what is median

A

The middle score when the data is put in order

121
Q

name 2 different types measures of dispersion

A

range and standard deviation

122
Q

how is range calculated

A

highest minus lowest score

123
Q

how is standard deviation calculated

A

Measures, on average, how much scores deviate from the mean

124
Q

+ of range (measures)

A

It’s easy and quick to calculate

125
Q
  • of range (measures)
A
  • It completely ignores the central values
    of data set, so it can be misleading if
    there are very high or low scores
  • Effected by extreme values.
126
Q

+ of standard deviation

A
  • All scores in the set are considered, so
    it’s more accurate than the rang
127
Q
  • of standard deviation
A
  • It’s not quick or easy to calculate
128
Q

name three types of data that can be used

A

Qualitative Data:
Data involving words, videos or audio recordings.

Quantitative Data:
Numbers

Primary and Secondary Data (including meta-analysis)

Primary data is data collected first hand by the researcher. Secondary data is data collected from a
source such as a book or newspaper (national statistics).

Meta-analysis: this is where you analyse the results from loads of different studies and come up with
some general conclusions.

129
Q

What is a pilot study

A

A small scale study conducted before any large scale quantitative research in order to evaluation the potential for a future, full scale project.

130
Q

How can self report questionnaires be used (and what are they)

A

Written, face to face, on the phone or online

Open questions that allow the participants to respond in any way and in as much detail as they like
- give qualitative information - more easier to analyse

131
Q

Advantages of self report questionnaires

A

Practical - can collect a lot of data

132
Q

Disadvantage of self report questionnaires

A

Bad questions - leading questions or unclear questions can be a problem
Biased samples
- self report

133
Q

Social desirability meaning

A

People try to show themselves in the best possible light. They might not be completely truthful but give answers that are more socially acceptable.

134
Q

Nature and use of case studies

A

case studies have intensive descriptions of a single individual or case. Case studies allow researchers to analyse unusual cases in a lot of detail.

135
Q

Advantages of case studies

A

Rich data
Unique cases

136
Q

Weaknesses of case studies

A

Causal relationships- cause and effect cannot be established

Can’t be generalised

137
Q

Example of famous case Rudy

A

Little Hans

138
Q

What is a sample

A

A representative group of people from a target population

139
Q

Meaning of population

A

All the people in a particular group- for example, a certain age or
background

140
Q

Random sampling meaning

A

this is when every member of a target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This could be done either manually or by a computer.

141
Q

Advantages of random sampling

A

Fair
Sample is likely to be representative

142
Q

Weaknesses of case studies

A

Not guaranteed to have representative sample

The researcher may end up with a biased sample because sample too small

143
Q

What is a volunteer

A

this is when people actively volunteer to be in a study by responding to a request for participants advertised by the researcher, for example, in a newspaper or on a notice board.

144
Q

Advantages of volunteering

A

• A large number of people may respond

• In-depth analysis and accurate results if
larger sample

145
Q

Weakness of volunteering

A

Not representative- only sample of people who have responded

146
Q

what is opportunity

A

when the researcher samples whoever is available and willing to be studied. Since many researchers work in universities, they often use opportunity samples made up of students

147
Q

Advantages of opportunity sampling

A

Quick and practical

148
Q

Weakness of opportunity sampling

A

Unlikely to be a representative sample

Cannot generalise the findings

149
Q

Stratified sampling

A

this is where important subgroups in the population, for example, different age groups, are identified and a proportionate number of each is randomly obtained.

150
Q

Advantages of stratified sampling

A

Fairly representative sample

151
Q

Weakness of stratified sampling

A

• It is time-consuming because all potential participants need to be assessed and categorised.

• Some groups within a sample may not be represented if a small sample is used

152
Q

Systematic sampling meaning

A

this is where every nth name from a sampling frame (a record of all the names in a population) is taken, for example, every 3rd name from a register, or every 50th name from a phone book.

153
Q

Advantages of systematic sampling

A

• Simple and effective way of generating a sample with a random element
• Population is more likely to be evenly sampled

154
Q

Weaknesses of systematic sampling

A

• Subgroups might be missed

• Not necessarily representative if the pattern used for the sample coincides with a pattern in the population.

155
Q

Alternative ways to get consent (3 ways)

A

Presumptive consent: ask a similar group of people for consent.

Prior general consent: consent for different studies, including one that may involve deception.

Retrospective consent: ask for consent during debrief.

156
Q

Nominal measurement

A

data represented in the form of categories. For example, how many students in the 6th form drive to school, how many walk etc.

Nominal data is discrete, one item can only appear in one category.

157
Q

Ordinal measurement

A

data which is ordered in some way. Ask everyone in the class how much they like the 6th form on a scale of 1 – 10.

Ordinal data does not have equal intervals between each unit. It would not make sense to say that someone who rated the 6th form as an 8 enjoys it twice as much as someone who rated it 4.

Psychology 🧩 (17 decks)

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