Rome Flashcards
How important was the gods satisfaction?
Romans believes the states was only safe if the gods were satisfied. Religion and the state are connected;
pax deorum (peace of the gods) was the goal; state priests conducted sacrifices, festivals
How was roman religion unappealing to many Romans?
• There was no individual conform of spiritual guidance in state religion – this made is unappealing to many
Romans
What did the gods look like to the romans?
• Roman religion was polytheistic (worshipped many gods); the gods were anthropomorphic (they had the
same characteristics as humans – looks, emotions, desires, they could reproduce BUT they were immortal
and free from human misery
Describe prayers in Roman religion:
• Prayers were a ritual of worship and a way of contacting the gods; use the correct name; select the
function of the god; don’t ask for too much and offend the god; use correct wording and order – if incorrect
had to be started again; flutes played to block out noise; mistakes meant prayer had to be started again
and ask the god again for forgiveness; small bells used to attract gods attention; see example of state
prayer gone wrong; many Romans confused about who to pray to; were the gods even listening
What were votive offerings?
• Votive offerings made by individuals or the state; offering made before a witness and accompanied by a
prayer; very common with Romans
Describe sacrifices:
• Sacrifices: to ask gods for help; thank the gods; celebration; before a large battle; before a large occasion
of state – blood sacrifice; valuable articles; temples; statues; food; inscriptions
• White beasts to the upper gods; black to the lower gods; male victims for gods; female for goddesses;
procession to altar – ribbons on the horns of the victim; priests washed hands - silence apart from flute –
priests covered head – victims horns sprinkled with salted meal and on the knife – wine poured on the
victims head – prayer to the god – victim lead to the altar – someone says ‘I do strike’ and the beast is
struck with an axe – victims throat is slit head up for upper air gods head down for lower gods – internal
organs removed for inspection – if no defects cut up and burned for the god
• Libation is a liquid sacrifice – unmixed wine, perfumed oil, milk, honey
Describe omens;
• Omens – messages from the gods; signa impetrativa – signs asked for: taking auspices, watching birds fly,
observing birds eating (cult of the sacred chickens), watching lightning. Priests called augurs advised
magistrates on the signs.
• Signa oblativa – signs not asked for – story of Servius Tullius whose head spontaneously burst into flames
as a sign from the gods that he was destined for great things
• Examining entrails – haruspicium – 60 state priests who were able to decide if an omen was good or bad.
Innards (liver, gall bladder, heart, lungs) were checked for unusual marks and their shape; often happened
before military battles and decisions of state.
• Dreams were interpreted as the gods communicated with the Romans in their sleep
• Sibylline Books – written in Greek by the Sibyl at Cumae. Consulted at times of crisis (war, plague, natural
crisis) by the 15 men; original books destroyed by fire and replaced in 76BC; lasted until 400 BC. Romans
did not consult oracles but did consult the books; their messages were deliberately ambiguous so that they
could not be proven wrong; their advice was always taken by the government.
Describe the prietshoods;
• Priesthoods were a job within the Roman government – not like modern priests. Roman priests were
officials of the state; it was not a dedication for life but just treated like a normal job.
• Many politicians used priesthoods to advance their political career (Cicero, Julius Caesar). The chief priest
was the Pontifex Maximus.
• Pontiffs – senior priests; assist the magistrates of the state and advised on the actions to be taken for
omens; responsible for the state calendar fixing dates for festivals; headed by the pontifex maximus –
many politicians wanted this position increase their personal influence but didn’t have the interests of the
state at heart
• Augurs – interpreted the meanings of omens; shown carrying a staff and wearing a robe; they took the
auspicies and interpret the signs (signa impetrativa) they also interpreted signa oblativa; the role of open to
abuse and they misinterpreted messages meet their own needs.
• Haruspices – interpreted the entrails of animals; it was a very old Roman tradition; politicians used
haruspices to justify their various actions and policies; many were independent of the state groups
• Quindecemviri (15 men) – interpreted the Sibylline books during times of national crisis
What were the vestal virgins?
• Vestal Virgins tended to the goddess Vesta; lived in the temple of Vesta; 6 women of noble birth chosen
between 6 – 10 years old with no physical disabilities; 30 year of service to the goddess – 10 training, 10
worshipping, 10 training another priestess; punished for taking a lover.
• Made offerings of food to the hearth everyday; tended to the sacred fire of Vesta; fire couldn’t go out;
attended religious ceremonies of state; look after the wills of important people
• Not under the control of their father/family; under the control of the Pontifex Maximus; could own property
and make a will; got a special allowance of money; free to marry after 30 years of service; could annul a
death sentence of a prison on their way to an execution
• Punished by live burial for loss of virginity; whipping for serious crime (letting the fire of Vesta go out).
• Temple of Vesta – held the sacred flame; in the forum a central location; very ancient from the time of
Aeneas one of the legendary founder of Troy
What was the Lupercalia?
• Lupercalia – February, very popular, origins unknown; don’t know the name of the god it was in honour of
• Two teams of young men met in a cave on the Palatine hill; sacrificed dogs and goats; feasted and got
drunk; smeared themselves in victims blood, dressed in animal skins and raced around the hill; whipped
women with leather strips of goat skin to encourage fertility; huge crowds; lots of drunken disorder;
• Possibly an ancient festival to protect land/animals from wolves; for women it was a chance to promote
fertility and gain favour from the gods to have children; it was good fun for many young men and they
enjoyed taking part in the worship
What were festivals?
• Religious festivals included: public prayers, parades, sacrifices, music and feasting, public games such a
gladiator and animal fights
• Ordinary Romans enjoyed the festivals as they were entertaining and a time to socialise
What was the saturnalia?
• Saturnalia – in December in honour of the god Saturn (god of agriculture) and Jupiter,
• Public sacrifice at Saturn’s temple; representation of Saturn there so he could take part; courts closed with
no criminal being punished; atmosphere of good fun and enjoyment; small gifts exchanged; gambling was
allowed; people wore special felt cap known as a pilleus; rich families sacrifices a pig; slaves and masters
sometimes swapped place/ slaves were given a feast and special privileges and freedoms for the festival
• It was a very old festival but with origins in the worship of Saturn; but many people were probably more
interested in having a good time; it was a time or role reversal and a change in social structures; it was also
a change to spend time with family and exchange gifts
What was the imperial cult?
• Imperial Cult – the practice of worshipping the emperor; it was an eastern tradition; not a Roman tradition
and many Romans during the Republic were not keen on the practice.
• Many people in the provinces within the Roman empire wanted to worship the emperor to show their loyalty
to him; eastern provinces wanted to worship some emperor as a living god
How did emperors let themselves be worshiped?
• Augustus had statues depicted of him aligned with the god Jupiter holding an orb which was symbol of the
world; Augustus expected the Romans to worship the state and not him while he was alive
• Augustus only allowed his genius (spirit) to be worshipped before he died; the senate decreed that
Augustus should be worshipped as a god in the same way as the state gods
• Tiberius seems to have been resentful of his position as emperor; he allowed a single temple to be
dedicated to him in Smyrna; 11 cities wanted the honour
• Caligula set up his own temple; life-size statue of himself; very rich people wanted to be the chief priest in
order to keep on good terms with the emperor; thought he was immortal; made his sister into a goddess
• Claudius had the statues of Caligula removed; refused to have own genius worshipped – this annoyed the
senate but does show the importance and authority of the emperor; refused to be worshipped by the
Alexandrians in Egypt; he was made a god when he died
• Different emperors had very different attitudes – some embraced it; some abused it; some rejected it.
What was domestic religion?
• Religion free from foreign influence – purest form
• Paterfamilias – head of the family (father) in charge of the family religion; conducted sacrifices and prayers for
the family to the ancestral gods
• The ancestral spirits believed to protect the family and the house – always prayed to
• Families worshipped Vesta, Janus, Lares, Penates – practice of praying to these gods and spirits did not change
much over a long period of time
• Important events were religious occasions – birth, marriage, coming of age, death – these were important
because many contained an aspect of mystery or unknowing (birth and death); coming of age was special as so
many Romans died young; marriage was a contract between to people and the gods
• Domestic religion was much more personal than state religion; important part of young Roman lives
