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Embryology > Second Exam > Flashcards

Second Exam Flashcards

1
Q

For what does cell fate impact

A

a particular cell and all its descendents

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2
Q

When are cell fates developed

A

known before the organism has fully developed

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3
Q

What can be made due to the fact that cell fates are known before organism is fully developed

A

cell fate map

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4
Q

When can cell fate maps be made

A

particular stages of development

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5
Q

How are fate maps made. What are the two methods

A

dye injection

time-lapse motion pictures

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6
Q

How does dye injection help develop a fate map

A

inject dye into a cell and see where the dye is after the organism develops

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7
Q

What are the limitations to these cell fate map methods

A

they work until the organism is too complicated

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8
Q

Why don’t the cell maps work when the organism is too complicated

A

there are too many variables, the number and position of cells move around a lot more

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9
Q

Drawing fate maps is complicate by what

A

variable numbers and positions of primordial cells,

cell migration within the embryo

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10
Q

What is cell potency/potential

A

how fixed is a cell’s fate

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11
Q

Is fate a complete yes or no

A

no, cells can have a potential that is in between and cells thus have various fixations

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12
Q

What is the potential of a cell

A

the total of all the structures a cell or it descendants could form if placed in the proper environment

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13
Q

What is an example of cells having inbetween potential

A

hematocytoblast vs erythroblast

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14
Q

What potential does a hematocytoblast have

A

produces a wide variety of cells, wide potential

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15
Q

What potential does a erythroblast have

A

produces only RBC, narrowed potential

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16
Q

How do we figure out cell potency

A

Isolation
hetertrophic transplantaion
gene expression pattern

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17
Q

What do we do in isolation to figure out cell potency

A

isolate the cell, put it in a dish and see how many different cell types you get

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18
Q

What are limitations to isolating cells

A

They are isolated within a petri, culture dish which is not a normal environment for the cells so their potential observed could be altered

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19
Q

What do we do in heterotopic transplantation to figure out cell fate

A

take a cell, keep it in a natural environment but move it around within the environment. This enables one to see if the cell produces the same thing or if the fate changes

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20
Q

What do we do in gene expression pattern to figure out cell fate

A

Take an epithelial cell and transform it into a pluripotentent stem cell

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21
Q

What kind of fate does an epithelial cell have

A

fixed fate

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22
Q

What kind of fate does a PSC have

A

not fixed fate, broad potential

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23
Q

How does one transform an epithelial cell to a PSC

A

give the cell or cause the cell to express transcription factors

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24
Q

What do these transcription factors cause

A

these are stemness genes, genes that correlate with broad potential

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25
Q

What are the 3 levels of potential

A

totipotent
pluripotent
unipotent/determined

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26
Q

What is totipotent

A

the cell has total potential, these cell can produce all cells in an individual

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27
Q

What are examples of totipotent cells

A

somatic cells, germ cells, trophoblast cells

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28
Q

What is pluripotentent

A

produces lots of structures

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29
Q

What is unipotent

A

the cell only produces 1 thing, its fate is determined

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30
Q

At the 2-cell stage cells within mammals are what cell determination level

A

totipotent

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31
Q

The cells at the 2-cell stage were discovered that they were totipotent how

A

twins can be produced at this stage, the two cells can create to full organisms

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32
Q

The cell at the 4-cell stage are what determination level

A

totipotent

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33
Q

How do we know that the 4-cell stage is totipotent

A

quadruplets are possible

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34
Q

At the mouse 8-cell stage what level of determination are the cells

A

totipotent

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35
Q

How do we know the morula/8-cell stage is totipotent

A

when a cell is removed it produces the whole organism, not just a liver, a transplanted cell produces a variety of organisms

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36
Q

In the 16-cell stage, what is the determination of the cells

A

inside: pluripotent
outside: totipotent

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37
Q

How do we know the determination is different in the 16-cell stage

A

blastomeres are distinguishable from the inside cells and have different potentials

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38
Q

What do the blastomeres do

A

develop into anything

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39
Q

What do the inside cells develop into regardless of the environment

A

the embryo

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40
Q

What is the fate of the inner cell mass cells

A

totipotent? But they can’t make trophoblasts

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41
Q

People who favor ESC research and transplantation claim what

A

ESC cells are totipotent

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42
Q

Are ESC cells totipotent

A

no, they can make any somatic cell but they can’t make trophoblasts

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43
Q

How do cells develop fate. Mechanisms

A

master control genes
internal signals
external signals
embryonic induction

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44
Q

What are master control genes

A

genes in heirarchy that dictate certain outcomes

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45
Q

What is an example of the master genes being in control

A

the eyeless gene within flies

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46
Q

What occurs when the eyeless gene is knocked out

A

the flies have no eyes. If you switch this gene on in other cells, eyes begin to develop

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47
Q

What specifically makes the master gene in more control

A

it codes for a transcription factor that then codes for all the other genes and transcription factors

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48
Q

How do internal signals determine cell fate

A

Within the egg there are internal signals and the cell that inherits the signal develops a specific fate related

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49
Q

How do external signals determine cell fate

A

Cells that are in contact with the zona pellucida are trophoblasts

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50
Q

What is embryonic induction

A

the ability of one group of cells to alter the course of development of a neighboring group of cells

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51
Q

What is the name of the cells that alter the course of development for other cells

A

inducing cells

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52
Q

WHat is the name of the cells that were altered

A

responding cells

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53
Q

How is embryonic induction done

A

inducing cells secrete some protein that stimulates nearby cells if the concentration is high enough

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54
Q

What occurs after the molecule is secreted

A

cells that are within a certain range and concentration allow the molecule to bind to receptors that then can cause changes that initiate cell fate

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55
Q

The molecule will only bind if what…

A

if the responding cells are competent, if they have the matching receptors

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56
Q

Responding cells that bind the molecule then have what

A

certain genes are switched on or off

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57
Q

These genes that are switched on or off correspond with what

A

certain behaviors and fates

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58
Q

Cells that do not receive signal molecules, don’t receive inducing signals

A

default pathways of development

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59
Q

What is determination

A

having a committed cell fate, fate is established and fixed but they are not doing it yet

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60
Q

What is differentiation

A

acting out the cell determination

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61
Q

What are the two types of cell fate regulation

A

strict and loos

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62
Q

What type of development is strict regulation

A

mosaic development

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63
Q

What is mosaic development

A

cells are unipotent, every cell knows its function since day one

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64
Q

What is the type of development for loose regulation

A

regulative development

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65
Q

What is regulative development

A

cells are pluripotent and not determined

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66
Q

In regulative development what occurs

A

fate can be regulated and is not fixed, cells remain flexible, filling in for each other

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67
Q

What is an example of regulative development

A

twinning

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68
Q

What are other terms for non-identical twins

A

fraternal, dizygotic

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69
Q

Why are non-identical twins dizygotic

A

seperate eggs were fertilized into separate zygotes that implanted separately

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70
Q

What are other terms for identical twins

A

monozygotic

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71
Q

Why are identical twins monozygotic

A

because they originated from a single egg, sperm, and zygote but they may originate at different stages of development

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72
Q

What stage do identical twins most commonly develop

A

post blastocyst stage

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73
Q

What occurs in the post blastocyst stage that causes the development of twins

A

the inner ccell mass divides or two inner cell masses form, producing two embryos

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74
Q

What do the two embryos share

A

placentas, trophoblasts

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75
Q

The embryos have how many amniotic sacs

A

two

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76
Q

What percentage of the time do twins form

A

66%

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77
Q

In the other 33% of the time, at what stage do identical twins form

A

blastocyst stage

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78
Q

How do identical twins develop at the blastocyst stage

A

from the 2 cell stage to the 16 morula stage, the cells separate and escape from the zona pellucida to form 2 separate blastocysts

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79
Q

Twins that were developed in the blastocyst stage have shared and unshared what

A

each have their own trophoblast layer, own placenta and amniotic fluid, two chorions

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80
Q

What is a rare form of twin formation

A

separation of part of the embryo within its one amniotic sac

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81
Q

What does the separation of the embryo within one amniotic sac form

A

conjoined twins that remain attached even after birth

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82
Q

How many births result in conjoined twins

A

1/100,000

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83
Q

What is shared within conjoined twins birth

A

shared amniotic sacs, 1 inner cell mass, 1 chorion

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84
Q

When does conjoined twins occur in development

A

late in development along the primitive streak

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85
Q

What occurs to the primitive streak to develop conjoined twins

A

cells that line in one streak branch

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86
Q

What system dictates the formation of the rest of the embryo

A

the nervous system

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87
Q

After the nervous system is developed what occurs

A

the formation of all the other organs

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88
Q

Do all the other organs split as well

A

no. Only the nervous system

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89
Q

If the CNS makes two primitive streaks what occurs

A

monozygotic twins that share one chorion and one amniotic sac

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90
Q

Identical twins sharing one chorion and amniotic sac have what mortality rate

A

50%

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91
Q

Why is the mortality rate high for this method of twin formation

A

they become tangled in the umbilical cord

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92
Q

What is the function of amniotic sacs in twin development

A

keep the embryos and umbilical cords apart, so they don’t get tangled

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93
Q

What can be experimentally done with mice

A

chimeras

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94
Q

What are chimeras

A

mixing cells from different morulas or blastocysts into a single, large morula or blastocyst

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95
Q

Do chimeras naturally occur

A

not typically

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96
Q

What is a chimeric embryo

A

a mixture of two organisms genomes that are working together to make a human

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97
Q

What type of determination are the cells in chimeric embryos

A

pluripotent

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98
Q

While the cells are pluripotent, these cells have what that is unique to them

A

express their own genes

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99
Q

The chimeric offspring have what that is normal

A

normal size

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100
Q

What does the normal size indicate

A

the blastocyst cells regulated their development to compensate for the extra cells

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101
Q

How do we get a chimeric human

A

two sets of genes are used to produce a person

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102
Q

A chimeric person will express what type of gene style

A

mixed genes

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103
Q

How are chimeric humans developed in the embryonic stage

A

Cytokinesis in the formation of the polar body was even and these two cells got fertilized each. They were fertilized with different sperm so the eggs have different genes. As the eggs develop in the same zona pellucida its like the embryo is at the 2 cell stage

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104
Q

WHat type of sex cells do chimeric people have

A

XX and XY

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105
Q

What is the importance of chimerism in research today

A

create organs in animals that can be transplanted into humans

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106
Q

What animal is used to create human organs

A

the pig

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107
Q

What is the pig used to create human organs

A

same size, similar to humans in mass and size

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108
Q

How does a pig create human organs

A

during embryonic stage of the pig, human cells are added to the embryo

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109
Q

Would the cells of the organ be compatible

A

human ligands wouldn’t work with animal receptors, therefore, partial compatibiltiy

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110
Q

Would the desired organ be primarily human

A

no, the organs would be mosaic therefore making it potential that the organs could be rejected by humans

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111
Q

What is an ethical debate about using the pig to create organs

A

the pig could obtain a human brain

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112
Q

If the pig does not use its cells for organism development, what is an ethical fear

A

the pig could give birth to a human baby

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113
Q

What is the appeal for using human stem cell transplants

A

cure many diseases

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114
Q

How do you use human stem cell transplants to cure many diseases

A

replace dead or defective cells with normal healthy cells of the same type

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115
Q

What are three things that contribute to high healthcare costs

A

malpractice
cost treatments
bureaucracy

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116
Q

how many patients will be cured by human ESC in the US alone

A

128,000,000

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117
Q

What could occur with ESC implantation

A

chimeras

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118
Q

When are the human ESC implanted

A

blastocyst stage

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119
Q

Where are the sources of stem cells from

A

adults
human embryos
induced pluripotent stem cells

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120
Q

Where do we get stem cells from adults

A

bone marrow, fat, muscle, brain, skin, bone, GI tract, placenta, cord blood

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121
Q

Whey are bone marrow stem cells inferior to ESC

A

they are not totipotent as researchers would claim

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122
Q

What is the plus to using bone marrow stem cells instead of ESC

A

transplants have been done since 1956, there is lots of experience and proven methodology

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123
Q

When do we get stem cells from human embryos

A

blastocyst stage

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124
Q

How do we get stem cell from human embryos

A

take the inner cell mass out, put into a flask, then force the cells to become determined

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125
Q

Once the stem cells fates are determined what do we do

A

transplant them into a person

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126
Q

Why do researches claim ESC to be better

A

they are totipotent

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127
Q

Are ESC’s totally totipotent though

A

no, because they can’t make trophoblast/blastocystes

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128
Q

What are the two attempts that ESCs have been used

A

spinal cord injury and macular degeneration

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129
Q

What was the result in using ESC to treat a spinal cord injury

A

the trial was discontinued after 12 months

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130
Q

Why did they discontinue the trial

A

it is unknown, lab techs were given hush money to not say anything about why it was discontinued

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131
Q

How did they try to treat macular degeneration with ESC

A

implant SC into eyes so they would replace retina cells

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132
Q

What was the result in using ESC to treat macular degeneration

A

as of 4yrs ago the person “improved” but it didn’t work because things are too quiet

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133
Q

What are induced pluripotent stem cells

A

stemness genes are expressed in a patient’s fibroblasts

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134
Q

How do they express these genes in fibroblast cells

A

virus mediated
RNA mediated
introduction of small molecules

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135
Q

What is the virus mediated method

A

used viruses that introduced stemness genes

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136
Q

What did ESC researches find as a flaw in using viruses to introduce stemness genes

A

viruses pose as a danger of inserting mutagenesis, splice into a gene and cause a mutation or cancer

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137
Q

How did RNA mediated introduce the genes

A

cells would readily pick up the nucleic RNA, the RNA serves as mRNA in the cytoplasm and the stemness genes would be coded for

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138
Q

How does introduction of small molecules introduce stemness genes

A

drugs that would force the cell to express the stemness genes

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139
Q

What is the source for all the ICM cells

A

400,000 extra blastocysts resulting from IVF

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140
Q

What is the biggest appeal for using ECM according to researchers

A

much good could arise from the use of the extra embryos that were going to die anyway

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141
Q

What are 2 problems with the appeal that the researches proposed in using ECM

A

blastocysts don’t have to die

is it ethical to accelerate their death

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142
Q

What are problems with using ESCs

A

expensive ($900,000)

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143
Q

Why is stem cells a person a trick question

A

because the cells themselves are not people but rater they develop the person

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144
Q

What is a more relevant question

A

are the embryos from which the SC came from humans

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145
Q

What is the humanistic response to whether the embryos from which the SC came from humans

A

no, they don’t have sentinence, self-awareness or viability

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146
Q

What is the biblical response to whether the embryos from which the SC came from humans

A

yes, personhood begins at egg activation, persons are made in the image of God, its relationship, not dependent upon us or their characteristics

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147
Q

What is the humanistic response to whether extra embryos have rights

A

only human people have rights, since the embryo is not a person it has no right

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148
Q

What is the biblical response to whether extra embryos have rights

A

right to life, Bible doesn’t talk about rights but rather our responsibility to others

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149
Q

What is the humanistic response to people who consent to this responsible for their actions

A

no, autonomous individuals are not responsible to anyone except themselves

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150
Q

What is the biblical response to people who consent to this responsible for their actions

A

yes, you are your brother’s keeper, preserve life according to the 6th commandment

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151
Q

What is the humanistic response to good consequences result from the use of embryos

A

yes, presumably you could cure alot, chief good in culture is happiness convenience

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152
Q

What is the biblical response to good consequences could result from the use of embryos

A

happiness is not chief end, Micah 6:8 (see justice, love mercy, walk obediently and humble with God), depends on how you define good

153
Q

What is the humanistic response to does the ends justify the means necessary to achieve goals

A

yes

154
Q

What is the biblical response to does the ends justify the means necessary to achieve the goals

A

the means is killing persons, therefore the results are not equal to the means, they are not balanced. Life is equal for life, not for something less than life.

155
Q

What are the humanistic motivations of the people who demand access to stem cells

A

selfish, they can die for me, my gain their loss

156
Q

What are the biblical motivations of the people who demand access to stem cells

A

we should be selfless, others should live before we are to die

157
Q

What are some practical problems with HES cell transplants

A

difficult to grow in dishes
unable to direct their development
cannot control their development
still a transplant

158
Q

What is the difficulty in growing in dishes

A

a very unnatural environment for ESC to grow in dish

159
Q

How many blastocysts does it take to get one stem cell to grow in a dish

A

100

160
Q

What percentage of blastocysts fail

A

99%

161
Q

What is the success rate to obtain 1 iPSC

A

0.001%

162
Q

While it is harder to obtain iPSCs, why is it easier ultimately

A

easier to get ahold of 1 million fibroblasts than it is to get human

163
Q

What is the difficulty in being unable to direct their development

A

to force something into differentiation to grow something specific is difficult, we can observe a cell but it may not totally develop into the cell but rather express only one protein

164
Q

What does evidence show in supporting differention of one cell into something else

A

the evidence is skimpy

165
Q

How would we know for sure if the cell we forced to differentiate differentiated

A

use dye to mark the cells

166
Q

What is an example of dye to use

A

green fluorescent protein

167
Q

How does green fluorescent protein get into the cell

A

a virus that has the gene infects cells so they now express the gene

168
Q

How could green fluorescent protein show differentiation or the lack thereof with the virus

A

The virus may have spliced in to orginal cell and then cam back out and infected other cells that make it look as though they were differentiated

169
Q

How could one cell with green fluorescent protein produce other cells without actually differentiating

A

fuse with a stem cell that has been labeled which produced labeled sperm, cells make bridges with each other and GFP can pass from one cell to another

170
Q

What is the problem in not being able to control development once the cell is injected

A

when in a dish you can control factors but once in a person the ESC resume embryonic development

171
Q

If the ESC resume development after implanted what does this result in

A

teratoma

172
Q

What is the problem with the stem cell still being a transplant

A

without matching every receptor and protein, the cell and organ can ultimately be rejected

173
Q

What is the solution to stem cell development to prevent rejection

A

therapeutic cloning and somatic cell nucleur transplantation

174
Q

How is therapeutic cloning done

A

get 100 eggs, remove nucleus, put the nucleus of somatic cell in donor egg, TF latch on to the sequences, activate egg development, grows to blastocyst

175
Q

What is the problem that can occur in removing the nucleus

A

in metaphase I when the eggs are picked, the chromosomes are not in nucleus but lined up in the middle. You have to get all chromosomes for if you leave one behind you could have a lethal trisomy aneuploidy

176
Q

Trisomies and aneuploides have a high correlation with what disease

A

cancer

177
Q

How do you activate development

A

let calcium in or caffeine

178
Q

How does caffeine help activate the egg

A

holds calcium channels open longer

179
Q

Once the blastocyst grows in vitro, what two things could be done

A

implant for reproducting cloning

used for therapy

180
Q

is reproductive cloning legal

A

no “thou shalt kill them”

181
Q

How are blastocysts grown used for therapy

A

gutted for their ESC

182
Q

What is the success rate for reproductive cloning

A

low

183
Q

WHy is the success rate for cloning low

A

due to all the mutations

184
Q

Why would these blastocysts have so many mutations

A

the DNA used was from somatic cells that have 60+ years of mutations

185
Q

In cloned animals what percentage of genome was mutated

A

4%

186
Q

How many mutations are needed for cancer

A

6-7

187
Q

How does mitosis affect the success rate for cloning

A

mitosis is complete before DNA replication, therefore no checkpoint within the embryonic cycle to fix mutations

188
Q

Wuppose the cells are not rejected, what oculd the mutations lead to

A

neoantigens that could cause rejections

189
Q

What is the good news regarding cell rejection in cloning

A

the genetic identity with the patient eliminates the risk of rejection

190
Q

What is the bad news of cloning

A

requires lots of lost embryos, murder

191
Q

Do the ends justify the means. Humanistic view of cloning

A

yes

192
Q

Do the ends justify the means. Biblical view of cloning

A

no, never did, ends and means are not equal

193
Q

What is the proper role of technology to the humanist

A

a savior

194
Q

What is the proper role of technology to the Christian

A

technology is a gift of god, a product of our job to explore the creation to be used within the moral boundaries he has set up

195
Q

What is required in balance for technology

A

faith and reason, prayer and technology

196
Q

Is God opposed to technology

A

no as long as it is within His boundaries

197
Q

What makes technology within His boundaries

A

obedience to Biblical law
motivated by Biblical love
With a concern for Biblical justice
respecting God’s sovereignty over all things

198
Q

What is Biblical love

A

selflessness not selfishness

199
Q

What is Biblical justice

A

you get what you deserve

you take responsibility for the consequences of your actions

200
Q

The cell begins gastrulation as what

A

disorganized cluster of cells

201
Q

What is this disorganized cluster of cells

A

the inner cell mass within the blastocyst

202
Q

What does gastrulation end with

A

the basics of a body plan

203
Q

What is the basics of a body plan called

A

gastrula

204
Q

What produces the changes in shape of the embryo

A

basic cell activities by different places at different times

205
Q

What types of cell activities occur

A 
migration
intercalation
ingression
change of cell shape
division
adhesion and detachment
cell suicide
206
Q

What is migration

A

movement

207
Q

What is intercalation

A

wedging of cells between their neighbors, adding themselves to a layer or group

208
Q

What is ingression

A

cells leaving a group to enter a cavity or space in the embryo

209
Q

What is division

A

proliferation by mitosis and cytokinesis

210
Q

What does division lead to

A

growth

211
Q

What types of cell shape changes occur

A

cuboidal to bottle flask shaped

212
Q

How does adhesion and detachment of cells change

A

expressing or ceasing expression of adhesion proteins within the PM

213
Q

What is cell suicide

A

programmed cell death, apoptosis

214
Q

Can cell suicide be good

A

yes, it occurs in specific places for the good of the embryo

215
Q

What is epithelial movements

A

movements of sheets of cells due to coordinated cell activities

216
Q

What types of epithelial movements occur

A 
invagination
involution
convergent extension
epiboly
delamination
217
Q

What is invagination

A

inward buckling of a sheet of cells to form a pit or pocket, depression, groove

218
Q

What is involution

A

migration of a layer of cells around a corner toward the inside, mass migration

219
Q

What is convergent extension

A

converging to extend, merging to elongate

220
Q

what is epiboly

A

surrounding a mass of yolk or of cells

221
Q

What is delamination

A

splitting of a group of cells into two layers

222
Q

Where does gastrulation start in fish

A

fish blastocyst

223
Q

What does a fish blastocyst consist of

A

a mound of three groups of cells on top of uncleaved

224
Q

What type of yolk do fish blastocysts consist of

A

telolecithal

225
Q

What type of movement does gastrulation begin with

A

epiboly by all three layers

226
Q

Shortly after epiboly begins, what occurs

A

the deep cells undergo involtuion to produce two layers

227
Q

What is the outer layer called

A

epiblast

228
Q

What is the inner layer called

A

hypoblast

229
Q

What occurs to the outer epiblast

A

continues to surround the yolk

230
Q

What occurs to the inner hypoblast

A

moved back toward the “north” animal pole

231
Q

What is the crease where involution beings called

A

germ ring

232
Q

Where is the germ ring found

A

bottom edge of the growing cap of cells

233
Q

What does the germ ring do

A

moves as epiboly continues and cells proliferate

234
Q

While epiboly and involution are going on, what occurs to the epiblast and hypoblast cells

A

convergent extension

235
Q

How long does the zona pellucida last in fish

A

up until the fish swims away, removal is the last step

236
Q

In the fish blastocyst, what are the three groups of cells

A

two layers of individual cells and one layer of undivided cells

237
Q

What is the undivided layer known as

A

syncytial

238
Q

What is the top layer of individual cells

A

enveloping layer

239
Q

WHat is the function of the enveloping layer

A

functions as protection, boundary layer

240
Q

Does the enveloping layer produce and embryo

A

no

241
Q

What is the middle layer of individual cells called

A

deep cells

242
Q

What is the function of the deep cells

A

produces embryo proper, all tissue types come from this

243
Q

What is the last layer of syncytial cells known as

A

yolk syncytial layer

244
Q

WIth distinguished layers of cells, what does this do to the cells

A

determines their fate

245
Q

The cells that are undergoing convergent extension results in what

A

layers of cell are drawn to animal pole, extend toward opposite poles and then accumulate, drawn to the center and the forcing the group to elongate

246
Q

Elongation of the cells creates what

A

the embryonic shield

247
Q

With time, what has happened to the epiblast

A

it has thickened

248
Q

What does the thickened epiblast create

A

the ectoderm

249
Q

What does the ectoderm form

A

skin and nervous system

250
Q

In adults what is the ectoderm

A

the outermost layers

251
Q

What occurs to the thickened hypoblast

A

delaminates

252
Q

What causes the hypoblast to delaminate

A

changes in adhesion

253
Q

When the hypoblast delaminates what forms

A

two layers

254
Q

The one closes to the yolk syncytial layer is what

A

endoderm

255
Q

What will the endoderm form

A

digestive system

256
Q

What layer digests the yolk

A

endoderm layer

257
Q

What is the layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm

A

the mesoderm

258
Q

What does the mesoderm form

A

organs between the GI tract and the skin, bones, muscles, blood vessels ect

259
Q

What is the result of gastrulation in fish

A

the basic body plan, organization of the three primary germ layers are laid out

260
Q

What are the major axes established from a mound of cells

A

anterior and posterior
dorsal and ventral
proximal and distal
left and right

261
Q

What do the anterior and posterior axes equal

A

head and tail

262
Q

What do the dorsal and ventral axes equal

A

back and front

263
Q

What do the proximal and distal axes equal

A

nearest embryonic shield to distant from shield

264
Q

In gastrulation of birds, where is the chicken blastocyst

A

sits atop the yolk at the animal pole of the embryo

265
Q

What occurs first to the blastocyst

A

delamination

266
Q

Delamination causes what

A

creation of two layers

267
Q

What are the two layers created

A

upper epiblast

lower hypoblast

268
Q

What is between the layers

A

hollow blastocoel in between

269
Q

What occurs after delamination

A

convergent extension

270
Q

What happens during convergent extension

A

cells from posterior section of epiblast move toward their midline=converging

271
Q

What happens after the cells move toward their midline

A

they move forward toward the head of the embryo=extension

272
Q

What does converging extension form

A

primitive streak

273
Q

What occurs after the primitive streak is formed

A

Invagination

274
Q

What occurs during invagination

A

the entire primitive streak buckles inward

275
Q

What is formed from invagination

A

the primitive groove

276
Q

What causes invagination

A

simultaneous shape changes by all cells along the groove

277
Q

What shape changes occur

A

cells go from cuboidal to bottle shaped

278
Q

Along the primitive groove, what forms

A

a dimple

279
Q

Where does the dimple form along the primitive groove

A

at the anterior end

280
Q

What is the name for this dimple

A

primitive pit

281
Q

What surrounds the primitive pit

A

mound of cells

282
Q

What is the mound of cells known as

A

Hensen’s node

283
Q

What occurs after invagination

A

involution

284
Q

What occurs during involution

A

epiblast cells move toward the primitive groove and pit, turning the corner to enter the depression

285
Q

What occurs after involution

A

ingression

286
Q

What cellular changes occur during ingression

A

the epiblast cells leave their layer and migrate into the blastocoel

287
Q

Are the cells that migrate into the blastocoel connected to other cells

A

no

288
Q

What is another term for the “free floating” cells

A

mesenchyme

289
Q

As a result of the epiblast cells leaving what occurs

A

new cells move toward the groove and pit to take their places

290
Q

What happens to the cells within the blastocoel

A

initially loose but ultimately group together into layers

291
Q

The first layer formed is what

A

endoderm layer

292
Q

What does the endoderm layer do

A

pushes the hypoblast cells out of the way to contact the yolk

293
Q

What is the second layer formed

A

mesoderm layer

294
Q

What is the final layer formed

A

epiblast layer is now called the ectoderm

295
Q

In what direction of axes does ingression proceed

A

anterior to posterior

296
Q

After the three primary germ layers are formed, what occurs

A

epiboly

297
Q

What happens in epiboly

A

the yolk begins to be surrounded by all three primary germ layers

298
Q

Where does the ectoderm spread

A

just beneath the vitellin membrane around the yolk

299
Q

What is the vitelline membrane

A

zona pellucida in birds

300
Q

Where does the endoderm spread

A

directly on top of the yolk, displacing the hypoblast, breaking down yolk molecules for energy and subunits

301
Q

Where does the mesoderm spread

A

between the other two, to form blood vessels to distribute absorbed subunits

302
Q

What is the final step of gastrulation in chickens

A

ventral closure

303
Q

Where does ventral closure first start

A

at the anterior end, then at the posterior end

304
Q

What occurs to the germ layers during ventral closure

A

they change shape, producing invagination above the yolk

305
Q

What is formed due to ventral closure

A

a tube-shaped body, the head lifts off the yolk

306
Q

What occurs to the yolk during ventral closure

A

remains bound in a sac, connected to the embryos gut by a tube

307
Q

What occurs to the yolk sac as the embryo grows

A

the sac gets smaller

308
Q

Why does the sac get smaller

A

contents are used up and eventually disappear

309
Q

What is the final step of gastrulation in a chicken

A

chick hatches out of zona pellucida before hatching out of a shell

310
Q

What has resulted to the embryo due to gastrulation

A

axes have been formed

311
Q

Why is gastrulation in humans somewhat different

A

due to the need to implant and uses isolectithal egg yolks

312
Q

After implantation what is the very first step

A

three rounds of delamination occur

313
Q

What is the first round of delamination

A

hypoblast layer delaminates from the side of the inner cell mass facing the blastocoel

314
Q

What is formed due to the first round of delamination

A

an epiblast

315
Q

What undergoes in the second round of delamination

A

the epiblast

316
Q

On what side does the epiblast delaminate

A

on the opposite side

317
Q

What is formed via this delamination

A

amniotic ectoderm

318
Q

What is between the amniotic ectoderm and the epiblast

A

amniotic cavity

319
Q

What will happen to the amniotic cavity during development

A

expand to surround the entire embryo

320
Q

What is the third round of delamination

A

The trophoblast splits into two layers

321
Q

What are the two layers

A

cytotrophoblast and the syncytiotrophoblast

322
Q

Which way does the cytotrophoblast face

A

the yolk sac

323
Q

Which way does the syncytiotrophoblast face

A

the endometrium

324
Q

How do nutrients get into the gastrula

A

maternal blood supply feeds the syncytiotrophoblast cells

325
Q

What is the space between the hypoblast and the cytotrophoblast that surrounds the entire yolk sac, amniotic cavity, and germ disc

A

extraembryonic coelom

326
Q

What happens after 3 rounds of delamination

A

convergent extension

327
Q

What is formed due to convergent extension

A

primitive streak from the epiblast

328
Q

What happens after convergent extension

A

invagination

329
Q

What is formed due to invagination

A

a primitive pit, primitive groove, hensens node

330
Q

What happens after invagination

A

involution

331
Q

What occurs during involution

A

epiblast cells move toward the primitive groove and pit, turning the corner to fill the depression

332
Q

What happens after involution

A

ingression

333
Q

What occurs during ingression

A

the cells move forward and laterally

334
Q

What is formed due to ingression

A

endoderm and mesoderm are formed

335
Q

Where does the ectoderm come from

A

epiblast layer is renamed

336
Q

What occurs after ingression

A

epiboly and ventral closure

337
Q

What has been considered proof of evolution

A

the similarity of gastrulation in humans and birds

338
Q

What does the phrase ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny mean

A

as an organism develops, it replays the development of its phylum, evolution sees that we all started one organsim that branched off

339
Q

Life began as what

A

a single cell

340
Q

What in the human embryo life is one cell

A

zygote

341
Q

What is the believe as to where the one cell began

A

in a liquid lake

342
Q

Where does a zygote begin its life

A

in a “liquid lake”

343
Q

How were the stages of gastrulation studied in 1956

A

someone studied uteruses due to hysterectomies. Some of the women were pregnant=embryos in the uteruses

344
Q

Most of what we know about gastrulation comes from what

A

mice

345
Q

What is the problem with using mice

A

mice do not equal humans so its an assumption that humans develop the same way

346
Q

What occurred in 1979 to make human gastrulation studies different

A

IVF so we could study in a dish

347
Q

What was studied

A

blastocysts

348
Q

What were the rules though for studying

A

all had to be discarded by 14 days

349
Q

What was specific about ridding the embryos by the 14th day

A

that is when the primitive streak arose from the circle of cells

350
Q

What is the last stage that twins can be formed

A

the primitive streak

351
Q

If two primitive streaks were formed then what could happen

A

twins

352
Q

What was their ethical reason for discarding after 14 days

A

until you know one or two persons you can kill it, at 14 days it is hands off cause you know how many individuals it will be

353
Q

What is the Christian argument in response to hands off after 14 days

A

the 14 day rule is bogus because it is always atleast one human

354
Q

What was also a practical reason as to why14 days was the limit

A

they struggeled to keep cells alive past 14 days

355
Q

With the technology today, what is the rule for how long one can keep an embryo

A

28 days

356
Q

What are the goals for being able to study embryos for 28 days

A

understand causes of birth deffects
study effects of teratogens
study causes of miscarriages

357
Q

In a christian argument is studying gastrulation in vitro ethical

A

no, the means require do not equal the end

358
Q

Why do the means not justify the ends

A

lots of human embryos are killed and sacrificing them, those are persons

359
Q

What do people say to view this research as ethical

A

embryos are subhuman species

360
Q

What is the importance of cell adhesion in embryogenesis

A

many of the cell movements involve changes in cell adhesion

361
Q

What are the movements that require cell adhesion

A

ingression
delamination
endoderm formation
migration

362
Q

What is migration

A

coordinated loss and gain of adhesion

363
Q

What are the two mechanisms of adhesion

A

CAMs and SAMs

364
Q

What are CAMs

A

cell adhesion molecules

365
Q

What are SAMs

A

substrate adhesion molecules

366
Q

What are cell adhesion molecules

A

transmembrane proteins that attach to corresponding transmembrane proteins in neighboring cells

367
Q

How selective is CAM adhesion

A

quite selective, enables only certain kinds of cells to attach to each other, not other kinds of cells

368
Q

Is CAM adhesion week or stron

A

weak, allowing cells to migrate when necessary

369
Q

CAM precedes formation of what

A

permanent junctions between cells

370
Q

What are just like CAMs but in a different family

A

cadherins

371
Q

How are cadherins different

A

structurally different and require calcium to seperate cells

372
Q

What are SAMs

A

transmembrane proteins which attach to long, fibrous extracellular matrix proteins around and between cells, their “substrate”

373
Q

What types of molecules do they bind to

A

collagen

374
Q

What is the actual name for SAMs

A

integrins

375
Q

How many substrate receptors are there

A

as many as there are substrate molecules

376
Q

HOw is adhesion regulated

A

synthesis of CAM or SAM requires the proper gene to get switched on, the cell will adhere then

377
Q

What can cell adhesion provide to a cell

A

the signal for a cell to switch certain genes on or off

378
Q

How do adhesion patterns differ

A

they change as embryogenesis proceeds

Embryology (4 decks)

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